Sunday, March 31, 2019

Differences in Grid and Air Gap Techniques

Differences in Grid and Air gaolbreak TechniquesIntroductionIn this chapter, a literature review was carried out so that adequate information about the differences in football fieldiron and p bentage- time out proficiency could be gathered with emphasis on why these techniques atomic government issue 18 consequential in plain skiagraphy of the askant rosehip. These two techniques volition be analysed to let off better the acquisition of the physical dead body. Both techniques allow be compargond and their advantages and disadvantages discussed. This was done by factor of radiography books and journals. Where, possible patriarchal sources of information were chosen. However, original studies could non al charges be obtained and secondary sources had to be considered. The use of the internet was similarly substantial as it served as a source for and access to germane(predicate) articles. Related literature was mainly sourced utilize the online data bases of EBSC O, CINHAL and Pubmed as easy as the Institute of Health C atomic number 18s library and facilities. understand fictitious character insure prize refers to the ability to view the anatomical structure under carry with precision and which makes it possible to identify and spot any abnormalities (Bushong, 2008). The persona of the epitome depends on several physical and physiological factors and this makes it hard to euphony. Image qualityIs examined in radiological bourninology as the congenership mingled with the structures of a test precedent to be irradiated with roentgenograms and the parameters of its visualisation (Hertrich, 2005, pg.244)According to Bushong (2008), the almost of the essence(p) factors that ameliorate or degrade simulacrum quality atomic number 18 blood final result, spatial resolution, noise and artefacts. Image quality clear non be metrical in a precise dash since the quality of radiographs is hard to define (Bushong, 2008).In digital r adiography (DR) the fig quality depends on a number of characteristics that can change the viewing experience. One of these factors is frequency, which is a measure of the total amount of line of merchandise within the anatomy. This characteristic depends on the painful data (x-ray heartiness) that the imaginativeness sensing element quarters. The frequency of the externalise is represented by different white-h railway lineed scale levels that cross-file the density of a ill-tempered severalise of the anatomical structure. This is how business line is bear on. A mettle slightly blood film has blue frequency ascribable to the amount of x-ray photons absorb (Carlton Adler, 2006).Image quality is as swell cogitationive and depends on the watchman (Sherer et al., 2006). Different community whitethorn need to alter the quality of the construe by change magnitude or reducing the distinguish or by changing the grimness of the exposure depending on their indiv idual visual abilities (Dendy Heaton, 2003). Dendy and Heaton (2003) argue that figure quality as well as depends on the disclose arrangement and the way the frame is produced. The authors yet argue that room lighting too affects image quality and office also diminish image quality.Image contrastImage contrast refers to the difference in densities between adjacent anatomical structures. The amount of contrast produced on an image depends on the structural characteristic of the anatomical part of the body as well as the characteristics of the x-ray post when it penetrates the longanimouss body. crease depends on the fadings within the patients body due to different densities in respective(a) parts of the body. The laster the difference in densities, the eminent is the contrast (Sherer et al., 2006). However, mild changes in densities of structures would non be observe on a high contrast image since high contrast does not accept a great enough movie latitude to give several shades of grey in the image (Bushong, 2008). This means that having high contrast in an image does not necessarily mean that it is optimal for every radiographic examination. Having low contrast means that better contrast resolution is produced and this gives the viewer the ability to differentiate between anatomical structures that confound similar densities. This is why contrast is a very crucial factor in image quality (Oakley, 2003). break up radiation sickness affects image contrast and the characteristics of the receptor and display system. The anatomical detail and contrast of small anatomical structures may also be diluted due to image blurring (Carlton Adler, 2006). disruptionNoise affects the images contrast resolution and the detail seen in the image. Like audio noise and television system noise, radiographic noise is ca apply by weak signals in areas of the image (Oakley, 2003). The impose the noise the better the contrast resolution and so image qual ity is better. According to Bushong (2008), there are four main components that affect radiographic noise. These are graininess, structure colorize, quantum cloud and split up radiation. Graininess and structure mottle cannot be controlled by the radiographer since they are dependent on the image receptor. However, the radiographer can use several techniques and exposure factors to improve image quality and reduce the noise as much as possible depending on the subject under examination. Penetproportionn zero of the x-ray photons (kV) can be increase in subjects that are obese and that are having thick areas of their bodies irradiated. Quantum mottle is also a very important characteristic in defining noise. Bushong (2008) explains that quantum mottle depends on the amounts of x-rays that are exposed and absent by the image sensor. When a few(prenominal) x-rays react with the receptor the resultant image will appear mottled. However, when more(prenominal) x-rays are absorbed by the demodulator, the image will appear smooth. Noise can be calculated by bar the signal-to noise ratio of the image (Bushong, 2008). If not enough x-ray photons polish off the let outor, the image is tell to be under-exposed, resulting in a low signal-to-noise ratio. However, a high signal-to-noise ratio is achieved if the unspoiled radiographic technique is used with the right exposure factors (Bushong, 2008).Spatial ResolutionSpatial resolution is a term used in imaging that refers to the resolution of a radiograph. Having a high resolution means that more detail can be seen and detected on the image. Spatial resolution is a very important implementation indicator in radiography. Quality control phantoms are used to check the spatial resolution and contrast of an imaging system. Spatial resolution relies on spatial frequency and this quantity could be calculated by comprehend the number of line pairs per millimetre (Lp/mm). These line pairs are dark and purity lines that are used to assess the resolution of an image. Detail is very important in radiography since outlines of tissues, organs and circumstantial pathologies need to be tart and detailed. High spatial resolution is also important when assessing for subtle fractures resembling scaphoid fractures which could easily be missed if the radiograph is not exquisite enough (Bushong, 2008).Scatter radiationWhen x-ray dick encounters matter, some photons encounter unimpeded arriver the image receptor whereas other photons are altogether absorbed since the cipher of the basal x-ray slam is deposited within the atoms comprising the tissue. This ingress interaction of x-ray photons with matter is known as the photoelectric put together (Fauber, et al, 2009). This photoelectric set is dependent on the matter and its picture decreases bucket alongily with change magnitude photon energy (Dendy Heaton 2003). Scatter radiation is made up of photons that are not absorbed scarcel y instead lose their energy during interactions with the atoms qualification up the tissue (Fauber, et al, 2009). This string outing effect is known as the Compton effect (Carlton and Adler, 2006). This happens when the incoming photon interacts with matter and loses energy. This will make the photon change direction and it may leave the anatomic part to interact with the image receptor (Fauber et al, 2009). Scattered low- photon energy reduces the contrast on the final radiograph and is also super hazardous for patients and staff due to its changed direction and low energy from the unproblematic beam (Dendy Heaton, 2003).Scatter ReductionAs explained above, scatter radiation is produced during a Compton interaction in which a primary photon interacts with an atom of the patients body and loses its speed and direction. Scatter is produced mainly in the patient due to the variable attenuation and densities of the different organs in the body and this could be controlled by using anti-scatter techniques and the right exposure factors. Consequently the radiographer should use the adequate technique and exposure factors to reduce the radiation produced within the patients body. Carlton and Adler (2006) argue that when the energy of the primary beam is increased there is a higher chance for the photons to undergo the Compton interaction. This means that the higher the energy given to the photons (kV) the more likely it is that there is Compton interaction with the bodys atoms, therefore creating more scatter radiation and a decline in radiographic contrast (Bushong, 2008 Carlton Adler, 2006). However, Shah, Hassan Newman (1996) think otherwise. In their depicted object they stressed the metier of anti-scatter techniques on image contrast and concluded that the influence of kV on scatter production is small. The authors further stated that the improvement in contrast that occurs when the kV is lowered is usually due to an increased subject contrast since le ss(prenominal) scatter r from each onees the film. Carlton and Adler (2006) also gave importance to the size of the area of body being irradiated. They suggested that by decreasing the area of irradiation as well as applying compression, scatter radiation reaching the detector could be importantly trim. Using this technique Shah, Hassan and Newman (1996) noted a decrease in the do drugs area product (DAP) when decreasing the area of irradiation, therefore lowering the happen of increasing patient demigod.Anti-scatter techniquesAnti-scatter techniques are radiographic techniques that make use of devices or applications such as power power systems and air break of serves so that scatter radiation is absorbed or deviated from reaching the image detector. These anti-scatter techniques help in reducing patient dose as well as improving the quality of the radiographic image. The two main techniques relevant with this bring are explained and analysed in the followers sub-sections .Grid TechniqueGrids are used in radiography to nurture the image detector from scatter radiation. Scatter radiation degrades the quality of the image and may bullock to loss of anatomical detail and information (Sherer et al., 2006). Anti-scatter power grids are made up of parallel radio opaque pillages with a low-attenuation somatic interspacing the strips (Sherer et al., 2006). The most greenly used interspaced sensibles are atomic number 13 and carbon fibre (Court Yamazaki, 2004). The main function of these anti-scatter grids is contrast improvement. According to Carlton Adler (2006), the most effective way to see how well a grid is performing is by measuring stick the contrast improvement factor. The contrast improvement factor measures the ability of a grid to improve contrast. This factor is affect by the volume of tissue irradiated and by the kV. If the amount of scatter radiation increases, the contrast of the image will be reduced, therefore reducing the contra st improvement factor. This is calculated using the following formulaK= radiographic Contrast with the grid/Radiographic contrast without the grid(Carlton Adler, 2006, pg.263)The higher the contrast improvement factor the higher is the contrast improvement. However, Court and Yamazaki (2004) argue that since contrast can be digitally change in digital radiography, it is best to calculate the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the image. This is peculiarly useful in cases where there is low object contrast.The interspaced material separating the lead grid lines is also very important in supervise the functionality of a grid. In the study performed by Court and Yamazaki (2004) it was concluded that aluminium has a higher atomic number than carbon fibre and so it absorbs more low energy scatter radiation. However, aluminium also absorbs some of the primary photons therefore increasing patient dose. Alternatively, carbon fibre absorbs less primary radiation than aluminium (Court Yamaza ki, 2004). Grid ratio is also an important factor to consider in improving image quality especially image contrast. The grid ratio is obtained by dividing the height of the strips by the strip separation. As the grid ratio affects the rate of scatter to that reaching the detector it is instrumental in improving image contrast (Dendy Heaton, 2003).There are principally two types of grids, linear grids (parallel grids) and focused linear grids (Fauber, 2009). Both types have their own advantages and disadvantages. Parallel grids are made up of linear lead strips with low-density material interspacing them and are parallel to each other. This variety of grids produces grid cut-off at lateral edges since they do not coincide with the oblique variances of the beam (Dendy Heaton, 2003 Fauber, 2009). It is also essential that these grids are positioned correctly, perpendicular to the profound ray of the primary beam. If this is done incorrectly, there will be grid cut-off and the lead s trips will absorb a lot of the primary beam which will show up on the image (Dendy Heaton, 2003). This will result in image deterioration and in the patient receiving an extra dose of radiation when retell the exposure. The focused grids, however, are designed in such a way that it allows the lead strips to be gradually angled moving away from the central axis. Although these grids are designed to eliminate the cut-off on the lateral sides, they noneffervescent have to be used at a specific focus to image distance (FID) depending on the type of grid being used (Dendy Heaton, 2003).Although grids are used to improve image contrast and reduce scatter reaching the detector, this is at the expense of a high radiation dose to the patient. This happens because the mAs has to be increased when using the grid. This is necessary in order to compensate the primary beam photons absorbed by the grid (Carlton Adler, 2006).Air-gap TechniqueThe air gap technique is an alternative technique use d to reduce the amount of scatter reaching the detector. By employing an air-gap technique between the patient and the image detector, the energy of the scattered photons decreases especially in the first tens of centimetres due to the large divergence of the beam (Ball Price, 1995). The primary radiation is not affected or reduced, since at this stage the primary beam is almost parallel to the detector (Ball Price, 1995). When the air-gap technique is used, the object to image distance (OID) is increased, which may produce some effusion (Sherer et al., 2006).Anti-scatter techniques are important in reducing low energy radiation reaching the detectors. However, the primary beam should not be deflected or cut off so that the image acquisition and image quality is not affected (Fauber, 2009).When the grid technique is employed, the grid lines are unable to discriminate between the primary radiation and the scattered radiation and so this could lead to grid cut-off and grid lines m ay appear on the image (Maynard, 1981). Maynard (1981) argues that with the use of an air-gap the image quality and diagnostic quality of many projections improves. A study by Karoll et al. (1985) analysed the patient dose when the air-gap was employed compared to when the grid was used. In this study the air gap was employed in a digital subtraction examination. Karoll et al. (1985) report that by using the air gap technique the mA could be lowered without losing spatial resolution. The results of this study were remarkable as the air gap technique allowed 25% to 88% step-down on the mA without increasing the kV or the time of exposure (Karoll et al., 1985). This meant that patient dose was reduced since the mA was lowered and so the patient was irradiated less. Although this study is 25 geezerhood old, it is still valid since in direct digital radiography, windowing has given the radiographer the opening to reduce the exposure factors to a certain limit while still obtaining a good diagnostic image. This means that patient dose could be lowered.Both grid and air-gap technique were studied and compared to assess patient dose by Kottomasu and Kulms (1997). The authors concluded that the air-gap improves musculoskeletal digital imaging without an increase in skin entrance dose. According to Kottomasu and Kulms (1997), this happened since the scattered photons had less energy erst diverged by the patient they were deflected and did not have enough energy to reach the image detector (Kottomasu Kulms, 1997). Barall (2004) also suggested that when employing the air-gap technique the radiographer should apply inverse upstanding law by increasing the SID and applying tighter collimation. This will assure the highest decrease in patient dose possible (Barall, 2004). The increase in SID could enable a better use of the air gap while reducing outburst by keeping the source to object distant (OID) continuous. In relation to the horizontal beam lateral hip projec tion, there is a reduction in dose and a good diagnostic resultant image when compared with the grid technique (Barall, 2004). Trimble (2000) concluded that imaging the thoracic spine without a grid was possible in children and adults of small size. In this study a significant dose reduction was noted and therefore on this basis, imaging the hip laterally using a horizontal beam and applying the air-gap technique instead of the grid may also result in a reduction of patient dose as opposed to using the grid technique.Digital radiographyRadiography has been revolutionised and developed throughout the years from concealing film (SF) radiography a high quality digital system has evolved (Oakley, 2003). With the introduction of digital imaging systems, image quality characteristics have ameliorate. The carry through of image formation in DR is similar as in SF. The image is first generated, then processed, archived and presented. Instead of films, DR uses detectors which when exposed to x-ray radiation absorb this irradiated energy which is then transformed into electrical charges, recorded, digitized and configured into different grey scales (Dendy Heaton, 2003).The grey scales presented on the produced image represent the amount of x-ray photons absorbed by the detector. A big advantage in digital radiography is image manipulation post-processing. While viewing the image, the radiographer can zoom in or out, change the greyscale as well as use measuring tools. Another great advantage of DR over SF is that images can be stored safely and archived. This solves the problem of films being lost and enables future reference of the images (Carlton Adler, 2006).There are two types of digital imaging systems computed radiography (CR) and direct digital radiography (DR). In computed radiography imaging plates containing photostimuable crystals are used, which absorb the x-ray energy and store it temporarily (Krner et al., 2007). Processing involves scanning the emis sary layer pel by pixel using a high energy laser-beam of a specific wave-length. Since the exposed photon energies are only stored temporarily in the detective layer, the read-out process should start immediately after exposure. This is mainly because the amount of energy stored in these crystals decreases over time. Although this is a big step from screen-film (SF), spatial resolution in CR may decrease if viewing monitors are not of the appropriate resolution (Krner et al., 2007).Direct digital radiographic systems use a photoconductor directly converting x-ray photons to electrical charges, once the photons are absorbed. The most common material used as a photoconductor in industry is shapeless selenium. This material has a high intrinsic spatial resolution. However, the material of the detector does not affect the pixel size, matrix and spatial resolution of the detector (Dendy Heaton, 2003). These are affected by recording and read out devices used. and then image processi ng in DR is as important as in SF and CR. In DR image processing is used primarily to improve the image quality by removing technical artefacts, optimising the contrast and reducing the noise (Dendy Heaton, 2003).Radiation DoseThe transition from SF to DR has also changed the radiation dose that the patient gets from an x-ray exposure. Radiation dose is the amount of radiation absorbed by the patient due to a radiation exposure (Carlton Adler, 2006). In SF radiography the energising range of the receptor (film) is relatively low and so it only detects specific exposures that lie within its parameters. However, in DR the digital receptor can detect a wide range of exposures. This means that a slightly underexposed or overexposed image is acceptable since image quality can be altered using windowing. Therefore in DR the radiation dose could be unbroken relatively low when compared to SF while still producing a good diagnostic image. This could also work the other way when patients are overexposed to radiation due to the wide dynamic range of the receptors. The ALARA concept is based on the conjecture that there is no safe dose of radiation using any kind of irradiation or radioactive material (The Ionising Radiation medical Exposure Regulations, 2000/2007 The Medical Exposure Directive 97/43/Euratom). In this way individuals inwrought and external exposure to radiation is kept to a minimum. This principle does not only address radiation used in medicine but also social, technical and economic shapes of use of radiation. This principle also takes into consideration the time of exposure of radiation, filtration, and appropriate materials selected to minimise radioactivity depositing on surfaces. This also ensures the safe disposal of materials containing radioactivity such as needles used in nuclear medicine (The Ionising Radiation Medical Exposure Regulations, 2000/2007, The Medical Exposure Directive 97/43/Euratom).The use of ionising radiation should b e monitored and used carefully to ensure as low a dose exposure as is fairly achievable to the patient while at the same time producing an image of high diagnostic quality.Relative LiteratureThe latest literature reviewed in relation to this dissertation was that of Flinthman (2006) who assessed thirty- louvre horizontal beam lateral hip radiographs for image quality. Nineteen of the cases were performed using the air-gap technique whereas sixteen using the grid technique. Several radiologists and radiographers were asked to evaluate the images. It was found that the air-gap was of higher image quality than the grid technique (Flinthman, 2006). In Flinthmans study several persons were asked to evaluate an uneven number of cases that were meant to be compared regarding the technique used to obtain the radiographs. According to Flinthman (2006) it is more important to have a small group of people evaluating the radiographs. This is because the results could be more specific and more reliable (Flinthman, 2006). A limitation of this study is that Flinthman (2006) did not use the same subjects in both techniques to achieve his results and so it is harder to get a line valid and conclusive results that could be applied in a clinical setting.A similar study comparing the grid and air-gap technique was conducted by Persliden and Carlsson (1997). Persliden and Carlsson (1997) studied scatter reduction using the air-gap and the grid technique. This study investigated the effect of the air-gap technique over the imaging plate and demonstrated the positional variableness of scattered radiation (Persliden Carlsson, 1997). The authors concluded that by using the air-gap technique, the patient irradiation was lowered. Persliden and Carlsson (1997) argued that even field size and patient thickness greatly affected the use of the air-gap.As well as Persliden and Carlsson (1997), Trimble (2000) looked and assessed image quality of lateral thoracic spine radiographs and ches t radiographs. These examinations were both done using the grid technique and the air-gap technique. Trimble (2000) found it important to have a large sample of subjects while keeping the specialists evaluating the images small. Trimbles study resulted in the air-gap being better for high image quality than the grid.Similiar to this study, Gouldings study (2006) who looked at image quality in lateral hip radiography when using both grid and air gap technique. The radiographs were obtained from the accident and emergency department Goulding (2006) worked in, where radiographers performed lateral hip slang through examinations using their preferred air gap or grid technique. Goulding (2006) took a sample from the recorded examinations of both techniques. The researcher excluded examinations with an exposure of speed of light mAs or more as well as any ingeminate patient numbers due to re-assessment as well as those examinations that used both air gap and grid technique in the same examination as this signified a very large patient. Goulding (2006) compared the sampled progress and air gap radiographs after reporting radiographers evaluated five areas on each radiograph, chosen by the researcher. The radiographers had to score each area from one to five where one is poor and five is optimum. It resulted that the air gap technique had improved image quality more than the grid technique. A limitation of this study was, however, that the patients used to test for both techniques were not the same, and so this could have meant that the results were not totally reliable since patient size and exposure factors were not constant but varied depending on each examination.ConclusionThe literature reviewed in this chapter has explored furthermore the roles of the air-gap and grid technique in imaging. It has also analysed the effect of scatter radiation and ways to reduce this in order to improve radiographic image quality while limiting the radiation dose to the patient as much as possible. Several studies were reviewed and analysed and will help to improve this experimental research. Some studies that are similar to this study were reviewed and discussed.In the undermentioned chapter, a description of the research design used in this study will be presented.

Saturday, March 30, 2019

Examining The Social Structure Theories In The Economy Criminology Essay

Examining The complaisant Structure Theories In The Economy Criminology Essay favorable structure theories swan that the disadvantaged economic signifier position is a primary possess of aversion. The theories realm that neighborhoods which are dismantle class force of strain, frustration and disarrangement that create crime (Shanali-Justicia). social Disorganization, Strain Theory and glossiness divergence are a few of the social structure criminology theories that are use to explain crime. Other social theories that fall into this category are Culture of Poverty and the actually disadvantage theory.The theory of social disorganization is that crime and delinquency is caused when communities fail. There is a breakdown of families, church, schools and government in the community. Social disorganization theorizes that these relationships reinforce positive behavior, a wizard of community duty and concern for the social network at bottom a close playing area (Hardy, 201 0). When these relationships breakdown or do not exist the communities and its inhabitants lose its sense of structure and this is deliberated to be the causation of crime and delinquent behavior. The turn of Social Disorganization is thought to start with poverty, where thither is inadequacy of opportunities and racial discrimination. The lack of opportunities breaks down the social institutions and organizations and this leads to the erosion of traditional value. This breakdown leads juveniles to seek the credence from peers and a sense of belonging from gangs. Once these gangs form there is a loss of social control or it plumps less effective. When this control is confounded neighborhoods start more prone to crime and this detracts from investors which reduces opportunities in the community. Eventually this becomes the average and this way of life is passed onto the next generation. The formation of felonious careers if formed and the cycle continues for some while early( a)s grow out of their delinquent phase.Populace in these disorganized areas can regain neglected, frustrated and ostracized from the economic mainstream, they develop feelings of desperation and anger which sociologist state are signs of strain (Siegel Welsch, 2008, p. 89). This strain develops and theorist state it leads people to transmit criminal offenses, because they lack the opportunities for success. The opportunity for a go bad life seems to be beyond their reach, so people turn to deviate behavior to achieve their goals because they feel that nightspot has let them down. Cultural departure Theory is a combination of both the effects of social disorganization and strain. It is thought that the lower socio-economic populaces create an independent subculture where they bring forth their own rules and values. Juveniles in lower class neighborhoods adapt to their surround, they become cynical and have no respect for authority. Conventional values make little sense to a youth whose role models may include gun runner, drug dealers and pimps (Siegel Welsch, 2008, p. 91). Teachers and other authority figures become secondary citizens to these juveniles and they cannot conform to the rules as other members of nine do. These juveniles experience a form of culture conflict as a result they never achieve their goals and eventually reap caught up in the life of gangs and deviant behavior.The populace of this poverty culture is marked by frustration of their environment. There is a lack of trust of police and government and this mistrust stalls people from this environment from seeking other discriminatory opportunities or ones that are available to them. The results of this environment are depression and perhaps psychological issues. Inner-cities that suffer from economic changes have an increase of crime they become ingrained in a cycle of poverty, unemployment and crime. These people are considered the truly disadvantage living in communities with p oorly organized social networks, estrange populations and high crime (Siegel Welsch, 2008, p. 85)Theorists such as Clifford Shaw, Henry McKay, and Robert Merton have equivalent views on social structure theories. While Elijah Anderson believed that juveniles committed crimes because of their socio-economic living conditions there were rendered incapable of achieving success (Siegel Welsch, 2008, p. 92). A juvenile turned to crime because it was their only when way of achieving success. They feel that their only option is to join gangs and engage in behavior that is deviant.Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay believe that delinquency is mainly the consequence of a collapse of institutional, community-based controls (Wong, 2009). Shaw and McKay believed that people that lived in situations such as these responded to the disorganization of their environment. They believe that delinquent behavior was a result of social disorganization, because the neighborhoods they lived in were transit ional neighborhoods. This was an area where there was a shift in population the fondness class neighborhood would transition to a mixture of lower class people. When this transition would occur the family would become rooted in the neighborhood and the values that they developed such as belonging to gangs and criminal behavior would be passed onto the next generation.Similar to Shaw and McKay, Robert Merton believe that fiat was the cause of deviant behavior, because family put pressure on people to achieve the American dream. Merton believed that society expected an individual to conform or either work within its structure. When a person cannot conform they become members of a deviant subculture. Merton argued that pep pill class children are less likely to commit delinquent acts because they have the mover and ability to obtain an education and stable employment. While lower class juveniles do not have the same means they feel the social and psychological strain or anomie. Me rton believed this condition caused juveniles to commit criminal acts to achieve their goals and even if they were offered the means to achieve these goals legally, they would reject those acceptable means of deviant ones (Siegel Welsch, 2008, p. 89).The theory that I most associate with my belief that juveniles commit crimes is the based Cultural Deviance theory. I think that juveniles conform to their environment and as a result have a lower gear up of goals and values than those of society. Juveniles that grow up in lower economic levels become hardened in their environment and develop an outer shell that shows no fear and have accepted because they play hard they will belike die young. These juveniles do not hesitate to use violence to get the message across nor do they consider the consequences of their actions. The goals that these juveniles set for themselves are reaching the top level in their gangs and increasing their drug sales. These juveniles cannot understand the idea of hard work and setting realistic goals like other members of society and because they fail to achieve success in life they are fast(a) to blame the man for their failures.

Data Mining Analysis in Health Department

Data Mining Analysis in Health partData excavation has been used intensively and appreciably in scads of fields of life. Likewise in wellnessc be, selective nurture archeological site is be sexual climax more than than and more popular each day. Its extensive applications stinker greatly prefer all(prenominal) events worried inside the wellnessc are industry. As an instance, info mining in health deal initiative benefits each insurer and insured. It pay heed insurers to revive upon fraud and abuse, health automobilee agencies make client relationship management choices, physicians shape aware of powerful treatments and great practices, and insurer sufferers receive higher and greater inexpensive healthcare offerings. Conventional, time ingesting, complex and voluminous hand overd transactions to be processed and analyzed in a totally brief duration. Facts mining offers the technique and technology to transform those mounds of raw shaped statistics into very multip urpose randomness for choice making. This article explores info mining programs in healthcare. Particularly, it discusses entropy mining and its applications inner healthcare in primary regions such as the assessment of treatment effectiveness control of healthcare, client relationship manipulate, and the spying of fraud and abuse. It also gives an illustrative example of a healthcare info mining software concerning the identification of chance elements associated with the onset of diabetes. So whizzr or later, the thing highlights the constraints of cultivation mining and discusses some destiny guidelines.The plunder of things (IoT) and its pertinent technologies can seamlessly integrate classical networks with networked units and devices. IoT has been playing an critical role constantly because it appeared, which covers from conventional system to preferred household objects and has been attracting the attention of researchers from academia, enterprise, and government in recent years. there may be a remarkable imaginative and prescient that each one things can be easily managed and monitored, may be recognized routinely by using dissimilar things, can speak with every different via internet, and can even make decisions via themselves . with a purpose to make IoT smarter, plenty of analysis technology are delivered into IoT one of the maximum precious technology is data mining.Data mining involves coming across novel, exciting, and probably useful patterns from large statistics sets and making use of algorithms to the declension of hidden information. Many some otherwise terms are used for data mining, for example, knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge extraction, data/sample analysis, information archeology, statistics dredging, and data harvesting. The goal of any data mining system is to pee an efficient predictive or descriptive form of a voluminous amount of information that not handiest fine fits or explains it, however is also capable of generalize to new facts. Primarily based on a large view of data mining functionality, data mining is the technique of discovering interesting knowledge from huge quantities of records stored in both databases, data warehouses, and other records repositories.On the idea of the definition of data mining and the definition of data mining capabilities, an average data mining process consists of the subsequent misuses.Statistics focal point put together the records for mining. It includes three sub steps integrate records in numerous facts assets and easy the noise from statistics, extract some parts of data into records mining device preprocess the statistics to facilitate the records mining.Data mining observe algorithms to the information to discover the patterns and compare patterns of discovered expertise.The health incision is one of the biggest department who need to be more focused to work on data mining growment. We see that there are some(prenom inal) diseases present all over the world and especially in third world countries where hunger, starve of clean water and fatal diseases prevails especially African countries. This is why in galore(postnominal) countries people are not able to lead a better life because of inflation. They dont realize enough amount of income to bear their health expenses. And we also observe that in such countries their govt. doesnt give birth enough sources to develop a better healthcare system. In recent research precisely 2 percent of total budget is spend on health in such countries. In such place the private laboratories have free hands to charge for lab tests due to their monopoly. A soul who is not able to perform that type of test fined wrong practice of medicine instead of right prescription(prenominal). So in a result of that all he will die or may be beside to die. So if we study and focus more on research and so we will be able to find the exact disease kind of than with the help of physical appearance of the long-suffering. So we need to be more focused on this domain of data mining. And there are many data miners who are working in the field of this domain of life. scarce this is not enough for the whole world. We need to be more use and work harder on this domain to have a better world.An refinement of researches specializing in expertise view, approach view, and application view can be found in the literature. But, no previous attempt has been made to entertain the unique perspectives of Data mining in a systematic charge, in particular in nowadays massive statistics mobile net and net of factors develop unexpectedly and some facts mining researchers shift their attention from records mining to big facts. There are plenty of facts that can be mined, for instance, database facts (relational database, NoSQL database), data warehouse, records circulation, spatiotemporal, time series, series, text and web, multimedia graphs, the sector extensive we b, internet of factors statistics and legacy gadget log. Influenced by means of this, in this reputation, we try to make a complete opinion of the vital current tendencies of information mining studies. This survey specializes in information view, applied techniques view, and application view of records mining in the department of health.Lack of data mining leads to long-sufferings death in many cases in past we have experienced many such cases. heal could not diagnose the actual disease due to lack of proper reports as the result of that patients suffers and died in the end. magic spell now data miners suck the record for more than 1 million people who have different diseases so they analysis the record and check that many disease have same symptoms and segregate different symptoms accordingly. So data miner says that if a patient has same symptoms and he should go to doctor for thorough medical examination then doctor recommends the patient for concerning lab tests whom h e sees in the patient then he concludes the proper disease and write proper prescription for that particular disease.Various information mining applications have been sent in the health department. In any case, most applications can be categorised as one of the accompanying three classes showcasing, misrepresentation identification, and system censure detachment and forecast.Healthcare covers detailed approaches of the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of ailment, damage and other bodily and intellectual impairments in human existences. The healthcare industry in maximum international locations is evolving at a speedy tempo. The healthcare enterprise may be seemed as location with rich records as they generate massive amounts of statistics consisting of digital clinical facts, administrative reports and other benchmarking finding. These healthcare facts are but being below-utilized. As discussed in facts mining is able to direct for new and valuable records from these huge vol umes of records. Facts mining in healthcare are being used especially for predicting numerous illnesses in addition to in supporting for analysis for the docs in making their scientific selection. The dialogue on the various regularitys used indoors the healthcare enterprise are discussed as follows.Anomaly detection is used in discovering the maximum extensive changes within the statistics set used 3 one-of-a-kind anomaly detection technique, preferred assist vector information explanation, density- brought on support vector data description and Gaussian mixture to assess the accuracy of the anomaly detection on uncertain dataset of liver disease dataset which is received from UCI. The technique is evaluated the use of the AUC accuracy. The results acquired for a balanced dataset through common become 93.59%. Whilst the common preferred variance received from the identical dataset is two.63. The uncertain dataset are prone to be to be had in all datasets, the ambiguity detectio n would be an amazing way to resolved this count, however because there may be simplest one paper discussing this technique, we cannot remark a good deal on the effectiveness of the technique. rapaciousness is intense issue for health insurance Company, bringing about billions of dollars of preoccupied income every year. Greediness can be partitioned into classes misleading and false information. lead astray happens when a client want to get unauthorized benefits for another society from the insurance company This offense can be perpetrate by the insured individual or the provider of health services. A mortal subscriber can commit health insurance fraud byAllowing a person else to use his or her identity and insurance data to obtain health care services the economic consumption of benefits to pay for prescriptions that had been no longer prescribed via his or her medical doctor health care companies can dedicate fraudulent acts by usingBilling for offerings processes and/or mat erials that had been never rendered Charging for extra expensive offerings than the ones truly supplied.Acting unnecessary offerings for the crusade of financial benefit Misrepresenting non-protected treatments as a clinical necessity.Falsifying an moved(p) persons analysis to justify assessments surgeries or other processes.Billing every step of a single technique as if it were a separate manner.Charging a patient greater than the co-pay agreed to below the insurers terms.Paying kickbacks for referral of motor car coincidence victims for treatment.The technology and methods of DM were designed in most cases for colloquy permitting the short and smooth transmission of statistics from the patients to the healthcare vendors who can treat them. A facet effect of that is that, over time, its going to generate big databases of measurements, clinical imagery, symptom descriptions, diagnostics, etc. The purpose for this is that in most cases the facts arent always meant to be handled in real time however saved to be examined later.While it is not their number one reason, the constitution of these databases creates formidable opportunities for researchers to discover fitness statistics from hundreds or thousands of patients. those numbers, a lot extra that what can be complaisant in maximum regular studies that recruit volunteers, allow scientists to enhance patient remedy via searching out patterns on a massive outdo and draw new conclusions, for example about the link among the improvement of a clinical condition and environmental factors. as an instance, the Center stone studies make for has advanced tools for studying the treatment of all their sufferers and discerning the methods that supply the tone end result to be able to practice them to future patients.The information mining has played in a pivotal role in healthcare industry, mainly analyse various kinds of sicknesses. The analysis is broadly being used in predicting sicknesses theyre considerably utilized in clinical diagnosing. In end, there may be no one statistics mining method to resolve the troubles within the healthcare information sets. with a purpose to pull in the very best accuracy amongst classifiers that is essential in scientific diagnosing with the characteristics of data being taken care, we want to layout a hybrid version that may solve the noted problems. Our destiny guidelines are to enhance the predictions the usage of hybrid fashions.References

Friday, March 29, 2019

Deconstruction Of The Rationalist Philosopher Rene Descartes Philosophy Essay

deconstructionism Of The Rationalist Philosopher Rene Descartes Philosophy Es dictateThis deconstruction of a rationalist philosopher such(prenominal) as Rene Descartes is influenced primarily by a heavy exposure to Nietzsche, Marx, Kierkegaard, and Foucault. Upon a personal philosophic synthesis of these philosophers to my self, a reexamination of Descartes produces astonishment that such work is engageed honorable and fame-worthy.Rene Descartes is run intoed to be the founder of analytical geometry, as tumefy as an important contri just nowor to the scientific order, and fin tot whollyyy, a philosopher. However, a philosophical scrutiny of this logician shows reveals that there is rough coherent substance wanting in his analysis and trys to reach lawfulness, and instead only achieves convictions. Such a acceptedization and conclusion implores to unveil the ambiguity of Descartes philosophy and discredit him as an honorable philosopher (while non touching the mathema tician).On the Begging of Questions and Initial FallibilityRene Descartes opens his meditations by recognizing that his c erstptions of the creative activity be largely based on wonky foundations and uncertainties, and thereof sets out to apply himself to the general destruction of all his former opinions. In the opening, Descartes describes the disposition of the task, Now it will not be required to green goddessvass that they his former opinions argon all false only the slightest ground for disbelieve that I find any, will suffice for me to reject all of them. (Descartes, 95)Immediately we argon faced with the illegitimacy of such a seize, for it supposes that Descartes is liable to reject all which he disbelieves. That is, he is liable to reject about honest issues, and fancy some false things so long as he has proof of them and he would necessarily embrace this.Descartes uses this subject consistently when he leases that that which is cognise by the senses ignorenot be accepted as certain or true (and possibly he is committing one of many fallacies when he implies that certainty equates truth). However, he claims that some things which ar receiptn by the senses, such as that he is holding paper, are ridiculous to doubt, for that is the kind of doubt that would capture him pull in myself to those insane persons whose brainpower are so troubled (Descartes, 96) Here he almost conspicuously begs the question as to what is certain and strong, and thusly sets the peak for a fest of question- mgoalicancy which ensues for the remainder of the meditations.A side note concerning his illegitimacy is that when Descartes claims to have doubted ein truththing, he still uses memory and language. Yet how can he see these faculties especially if he were to apply the very(prenominal) reason to them as he did to his senses that it is imprudent to trust anything which has ever denounced him? Indeed, Descartes cannot doubt everything from the rootage, and for the sake of Construction accepts some premises which are likely to be faulty. (Harrison-Barbet, 127)The fantasy line continuing in the deconstruction, Descartes mentions a most interesting crest that there are no conclusive signs by means of which one can spy clearly between being awake and being asleep. (Descartes, 96) Descartes attempts to eliminate the ambiguity of what is tangible and not by have in minding that that which is doubtless in both the real world and the dream world is doubtless in itself, such as algebra, geometry, and astronomy. However, though these mathematics may appear to be true, it is still moderately uncertain which world is the real one.The wrong brainiac / divinity fudge ProblemDescartes suddenly introduces the concept of a divinity. Supposing that there is a being who is all-powerful and by whom I was created and made as I am, (Descartes, 98) Descartes poses the question as to how he can be certain that that which is e stablished, of the indubitably of mathematics, is not the prey of whoremonger by a more powerful being, and his globe and personality are of a major concern for the meditations.First, Descartes proposes the guess that there is not a true paragon, who is the sovereign source of truth, but some Evil Genius, no less cunning and deceiving than powerful, who has used all his artifice to deceive me. (Descartes, 100) What Descartes means by true immortal is uncertain here, as is his verge Evil Genius, but clearly the latter is an illusionist who is in the exercise or practice of deception. Descartes supposes that this Evil Genius is all-powerful, so that if he is real, hence paragon cannot be, and vice-versa, but simultaneously he professes that the suspension of all discretion and building up his surviveledge from only that which is certain protects him from the illusions of the Evil Genius. He does not consider the rational implication that this may lead him to an blank sp ace regress of uncertainty, as in the case of suspecting that he is suspecting something to be untrue, for this is most detrimental to the object of building a foundation and structure of certainty.The CogitoDescartes supposes that perchance there is nought which is certain, nor certain to dwell, except his self his ego. That is, given the human beings of a deceptive Evil Genius, and given that Descartes thinks, it must be luculent that that which thinks must exist, and therefore, disrespect any deception, Descartes exists, and thus Descartes has attained a point of reference and the foundation of all of his friendship.Firstly, however, Descartes supposes the being of an Evil Genius, and has not refuted the possibility of an in mortal regress in which it is possible that he is being deceived more or less the proposition that Descartes assumes to be true that an Evil Genius exists, or he does not.There has been a great wealth of criticisms concerning Descartes cogito, that if we were to focus on this, we would be quite repetitious and dreary, and thus this essay will presume the cogito righteous as Descartes has that is, that he exists, with reference to a single instance of such criticism from respectThe cogito commits the error of circular reasoning for the I in I am is already presupposed in the I of I think, and any necessity it possess is a matter of logic which has nothing to say somewhat actual existent things (Harrison-Barbet, 126) Indeed, what has Descartes sincerely doubted before he nets this claim? Everything except what he needs in constructing, it seems he has already presumed an I, and in addition that already has a conception of what sentiment is (and necessarily what not thinking is). Indeed, Descartes has not doubted everything as he had attempted. (Nietzsche BGE, 24) This habit of not doubting everything and reservation leaps in logic serve very swell in stray to create the Cartesian structure, which is more the goal tha n reaching truth, though Descartes seems to imply that a structure and Truth would be equal.The In exhaustible as beyond Logic and UnderstandingIn Meditation three, Descartes attempts to prove the existence of god, in which, according to his own logic, he is unsuccessful. One of Descartes unwritten premises is that perfection can be known by logic. Considering a being who is alone a creator, this may be possible, but Descartes theology is characterized by being eternal. Thus the question that is most prudent to ask is if deity can be known by dint of with(predicate) logical means. Logically, this would mean that there is something to which God is not superior, and therefore calling him an illimitable being and knowable through logic is just contradictory.What we cannot do, according to Kierkegaard, is see by honor of reason. If we cull faith or belief we must suspend our reason in order to believe in something higher than reason. (McDonald) Indeed, Kierkegaard makes a wor thy reaffirmation of the futility of trying to know something which is above reason through reason. Supposing, however, that Descartes God so desires, then(prenominal) of lineage he could be known by logic and then, but what is beside to be examined is if the finite can know the nature of the infinite.Descartes has claimed the potential existence of some tyrannical, infinite being, and is attempting to gain knowledge about him. However, Descartes is a mortal, finite being, who cannot, without the will of God, grasp the will or nature of the infinite. By definition, blush if God allowed this to him, God may have just as well disallowed this. That Descartes presumes that God is allowing himself to be known, and also that he allows himself to be known through logic is a presumption which relies heavily upon two very shaky supports that Gods will is for himself to be understood or known, and that God is not a deceiver. It seems that it is simple for all knowledge claims to have a base which, ultimately, lies in some unproved assumption ( even so mathematics, according to Russell), but it is precisely Descartes erratic doubting method which makes it so that we cannot grant him the benefit of the unproven assumptions which he makes.The attacks upon the knowledge of God through logic presented above can be applied to Descartes suppositious argument that his conception of God cannot have originated at bottom himself. His claim to this argument is that he is finite, whereas God is infinite, and that the head of something which is more real cannot originate with something which is less real.Here Descartes is not considering the alternative. That is, he is already begging the question that God exists or is real, when he should also consider that perhaps the composition of the existence of God is less real than himself. This would mean that, even according to his argument, his idea of God may be an illusion, thus devising him more real and existing than God or the idea of God, whereas this idea is only an idea, and his existence is real. Therefore, he would be the creator of something more delicate (the illusion), thus being more perfect than the idea of God, which, according to his Cartesian logic, is a legitimate argument which he has failed to consider.In considering that his idea originated from God, he is begging the question that God exists. Furthermore, Descartes claims that he cannot doubt the idea of God because he has a clear and evident perception that it is true.Once more, despite the shakiness of the presumptions base and logic, with the proof of God, Descartes is successful at beginning to entice himself that there are some things which he can begin to believe and accept.On the Reason for ExistenceNow, Descartes presents a most interesting argument. He claims that he exists, and that this existence must have a cause, which may be from himself, that he has always existed, his parents, something less perfect than God, or Go d, and that he could exist for no other reason. (Wikipedia, argument outline)Descartes naivet in the matter of refuting his goals will be exploited here. Firstly, he supposes that perhaps he created himself, but refutes this by claiming that if this had been the case, he would have made himself perfect. If I were God I should certainly doubt nothing, I should conceive no desires, and finally I would lack no saint of which I have in me some idea . This is a very adolescent approach to refuting this, for one may only if ask how Descartes knows the nature of God once more. Indeed, If Descartes were God and his own creator, is it not possible that he would make himself ignorant to alleviate his boredom of omniscience? Is it not possible that he would make himself believe that he is human? By Descartes definition, God can do anything he wills, and thus how can Descartes claim to know what God would like? This arrogance is mirrored in a poor defence reaction of his argument. Perhaps he has convinced himself that he is not God, but this defensive structure is a very dim one. Furthermore, how does he know the nature of god? Descartes is supposing that as he is right now is continuous tense. He does not consider that perhaps he is a perfect being indeed, that perhaps the experimental condition that he is imperfect, that he is lacking, that he is finite, and doubting everything, perhaps all are functions of perfection, including considering a wrong conception of perfection. This would make Descartes a perfect being, but nonetheless one who is confused and perhaps discontented, but Descartes fails to even consider this, instead reverting to an old idea of perfection, which by now has evolved from simply supremely existing to being doubtless and undesiring too.Descartes other sources of existence will not be refuted because they are so embarrassing, but he then wonders how, given that God exists, he received this idea. He apace dismisses that it was created by him , begging the question, and asserts that it is an innate idea, and that it was placed there by God at birth. He gives no substance to this claim, and concludes the third meditation with a most disturbing note that God is not a deceiver.This attempt to shed light upon the nature of God is once more an lordly question-begging leap. Descartes claims that deception is an imperfection. How he knows this, or how he can possibly know what perfection is, he leaves uncertain and assumed once more. Apparently, it is because he has an idea of perfection, and deception is not as perfect as the absence of deception in his mind. However, it is essential to understand that this very idea is reliant on the premise that this is indeed the case. For if God is a deceiver, then he is fundamentally equal to the Evil Genius, and may have well placed a wrong idea of perfection in Descartes mind. Descartes claim that deception is imperfect stems from the premise that deceit stems necessarily from some def ect, which is a horrendous question-begging root, for he automatically disregards any of these defects as attributes of God simply because that is the way in which he conceives of them. That is, anything which he conceives of as bad, therefore, is bad. He doesnt question his ability to make this claim. However, this is alright for Descartes, for he is desperate to erect his structure of certainty already why not skip and ignore some steps so long as he can have certainty?On the Benevolence of GodDescartes claims that God must be appealing, and gives substance to this claim by further claiming that God cannot be a deceiver, since deception is imperfect. This idea of perfection stems from his clear and plain ideas of perfection, which are true by virtue of all of his doubtless claims being true due to the premise that God is not a deceiver. However, Gods benevolence is dependent upon Descartes clear and distinct perceptions, which thus creates a very circular reasoning.And what of the nature of God? Can omnipotence truly coexist with omni-benevolence? Supposing, as Descartes has, that there indeed exists an infinite being who is supreme to all other things ever conceivable and existing, there arises the paradox of an infinite benevolence. Can God be both omni-benevolent and omnipotent? For indeed, if he were omni-benevolent, then he would necessarily have no capacity for cattiness, and thus once more not be infinite. Can it be possible that Descartes is considering that, if God should so will it, he could not express pure malice? Is God thus limited? Is he then still an infinite God? Perhaps his idea of benevolence was instead opposite to perfection, and he has just proved the existence of the Evil Genius?These utterly slopped assumptions which the finite mortal being Descartes attempts to make about the nature of God are truly disturbing. Indeed, even through logic, what is understandable about God is that we may be wrong in all of our conceptions of him, but we may also be right in some. Indeed, Descartes miserably failed to examine that nothing can be certain about that which is more infinite than our finite understandings.Thus, the premise of the omni-benevolence of God which Descartes claims through his circular reasoning will not be granted to him, and anything further built upon the expectations that all of his clear and distinct ideas are true, and that God is not a deceiver, are built on top of such a shaky foundation that will be considered as unreliable sources of truth and reason.Thus, we have the possibility that God is indeed a deceiver, and both the deconstruction and the early reconstruction will be reexamined.The Evil Genius / God Problem ReexaminedDescartes early doubts concerning the Evil Genius and God reappear, and the concept that the Evil Genius and God are the same is a possibility, though it must be admitted, that this is rather unknown. Indeed then, Descartes was assort in doubting everything, for indeed, ev erything may be a deception and an illusion, and everything he may seem to know has the potential to be false. (The Radical Academy)The Dream Problem ReexaminedWhen considering that God/Evil Genius may be real and existing, and possibly deceiving, the Dream Problem is given a whole unseasoned perspective. Indeed, even the things which are true in both the real world and the dream world, such as mathematics, may be deceptions created and placed into Descartes mind by this infinite being. This would mean that Descartes would truly have no knowledge of what is real and what is a dream, if even his conceptions of real and dream are legitimate conceptions in the first place. This leads us to Descartes most genuine statement from the beginning of his treatise, that maybe there is nothing certain in the world. (Descartes, 102)Beyond InfinityThe reasons for which Descartes arguments adjacent the establishment of the existence of an infinite being are invalid is because he constantly refer s to this infinite to propagate that he cannot be wrong in what he conceives because he believe the existing God to be benevolent and not a deceiver. However, since this premise is so weak, his structures of mathematics and sciences, and then in the end senses and other bodies are so unstable that, even if true, are inconsistencies based on a weak premises which do not deserve to be examined. Descartes fails to achieve truth (but not in building a structure).Conclusion On the Philosophy of his Mind A Structure of Secure CertaintyIt is most appropriate to mention an analysis of Descartes meditations and what he has achieved. Rene Descartes began his meditations by hoping to eliminate all doubt and achieve certainty. By the end of the meditations, it appears that he has done just this. However, his flaws, incessant question-begging, and absurd philosophical method have been pointed out above, thus raising the inquiry of the coexistence of the absence of doubt and truth.Descartes prim ary aim was to eliminate doubt, and by the very end he is shown to be doubtless indeed. However, the matter is different when concerning truth. Descartes has mentioned that in his life he has struggled to find something certain, and the Cartesian Structure which he has constructed for himself is perhaps the very thing for which he had been searching. Indeed, Descartes may now rest easily accepting that everything which he clearly and distinctly perceives is true, and that everything he considers, therefore, is essentially true for he believes that he could not be deceived.Yet this goes back to an original concern of rejecting truth or accepting imposition. By the end of the Meditations, it is clear that truth and untruth are for Descartes merely functions of what is certain and what is doubtful. That is, for him, truth or untruth is a quality which an idea gains as one is accustomed to it (such as in the Cartesian Structure), and so long as he is doubtless about it, he is living hi s philosophy well.Essentially what this means is that, though Descartes may fail at reaching truths logically, at least he removes doubt from himself, and may rest easily. It is for this reason that the Cartesian philosophy is one which is a philosophy solely for Descartes (and perhaps those of similar mental properties). That is, this philosophy, which is based upon ease in certainty and anti-doubt, cannot have a universal application to all humans, but only for himself, for perhaps he alone can achieve a comfort with this exact method.Thus, Descartes reconstruction provides him with a method for removing doubt, but cannot be used by others to remove doubt, nor to reach much truth, for their mental states vary from Descartes, who has created a system which works for himself (it is considered that this may work for some others, but these are generally not considered here, thus only slimly mentioned in these parentheses).Thus, has Descartes eliminated doubt? Indeed, yes he has, an d it just so happens that he has achieved this mental state philosophically. However, it is not a philosophical state of truth at all perhaps solely the state of potential truth. For Descartes, however, it is simpler, clearer, and more distinct to conceive of these two as synonymous as he takes a nap from six long and excruciating meditations, allowing him the luxury of defining metaphysical and epistemological as he pleases. His philosophy is essentially the propagation of his psychological science in the erection of his Cartesian Structure, that this structure is the very thing necessary to discard doubt. Or in Friedrich Nietzsches words, every great philosophy so far has been the personal confession of its author and a kind of unbidden unconscious memoir. (BGE, 13)