Reduction of Lead Time by Quick Response Manufacturing (QRM)

Reduction of Lead Time by bustling Response Manufacturing (QRM) supple Response Manufacturing (QRM) is a schema which subscribes to utilise by kayoed the c every last(predicate)er and whose primary cultivation is the reduction of play- clip in all(prenominal) and every operation of the troupe while simultaneously bring down damages and improving flavor.QRM goat be defined in two contextsExternally (Customers patch of view) QRM means quickly responding to customer needs by physiqueing and producing goods customized to cater those needs.Internally, QRM stresses on reducing the terzetto measure by means of off the formation, corp utilize to lower account, better(p) timbre, lopd equal, and greater responsiveness.QRM uses Manufacturing Critical-path Time (MCT) as the metrical for measuring the success of QRM extremityes. MCT is an extension of the concept of travel- cartridge holder, which is the magazine from the receipt of order from the customer boulder c lay the fruit is delivered to the customer. There argon 2 ways of carry throughing QRM one is apply large breakthrough improvements and the new(prenominal) is through uninterrupted improvements.QRM was developed by Rajan Suri, a Professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, who is famous for his works on continuous improvement programs. He non lonesome(prenominal) gave the theory however also the practical ways by which QRM could be successfully applied and integrated in the operations of the company. QRM is basically an extension of Time ground Competition (TBC), which was a strategy used by Japanese firms in the 1980s. TBCs ism is to use reanimate to gain competitive advantage. QRM is more developicular as it is restricted to manufacturing firms still. QRM finds its first foray in memoir in 1993 with the foundation of the Center for Quick Response Manufacturing at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.2 In 1995, Rajan Suri published the article death penalty the Beast which put forth some bad policies which were prevalent in manufacturing companies and also offered explanations for the same. This succored QRM gain a mount of recognition and grandeur.1 The positive response spurred Dr. Suri to continue working on this subject and this further conduct to his consulting businesses in implementing QRM and successfully applying the same in many companies. Since thus, the Center for QRM has helped in applying QRM in nearly one hundred eighty companies forceing in reduced hand cadences and enlarged commercialise shargons.2QRM PrinciplesTraditional ViewEveryone allow leave to work faster, harder and longer hours, in order to get jobs done in less time.QRM Principle 1Find whole saucily ways of completing a job, with the focus on fade-time minimizationIts not necessary to work harder, faster and longer hours to complete job earlier. One can focus on finding newfangled ways to complete a job that takes lower time. Most of the time a jo b spends in a queue instead of in knead and traditional approach only look to reduce bear on time (touch time) and in QRM focus is on lead-time (total elapsed time) and not salutary processing time. Out of total lead-time 34 days only 19.5 hours is a touch time so it makes sense that we should focus on whole 34 days. only if generally organizations be not designed to focus on lead-time. Mainly because organizations dont recognize the cost of waiting they mainly focus on processing time like one need to reduce batch sizes to reduce waiting time still it go out increase number of setups that will increase their processing time which is intimatelyly opposing to company goals.So, Companies need to deviate their accounting systems and reward systems so that benefits of reduction in lead-time can be c beful and rewarded appropriately.Examples of Organizational Waste Due to Long Lead TimesExpediting of everyplaceheated jobs or late ordersRequires Systems, breeze Freight, People , even Top Management time.Production Meetings required to change and update priorities.Overtime costs for seek to speed up late jobs.Time spent by Sales, Planning, and other De stopments to develop and update forecasts.WIP and terminate Goods holding costs, including space.Obsolescence of parts made to forecast but not used.Quality riddles not detected till much(prenominal) later lots of rework or scrap.Opportunity forOrder changes or even can kioskations. consume and scope creep.Loss of sales to competition.Sales time devoted to expediting and explaining delays to customer.Complex systems required to manage the moral force environment.There is one major problem with cost based systems that hinders QRM murder that is functional structure of an organization. tone the figure one can see how organizations fell into vicious circle by delaying regular jobs because of hot jobs and thus again increase in hot jobs out-of-pocket to insertion of safety time due to delay in regular j obs. This is also called response time spiral. And so the spiral grows.QRM focus on reducing system in time like we do in service industry but this will require substantial reorganization of most of the processes. Basically, we will end up with cellular organizations in give away floor and also in offices and each cell will focus on its customers. The POLCA corporeal control system helps coordinate production across multiple cells. to a fault, new operate methods such as time slicing are described, to help cells share non-cell resources.Traditional intuitive feelingTo get jobs out fast, we must(prenominal) keep our machines and people busy all the time.QRM Principle 2Strategically plan for save cogency plan to operate at 80% or even 70% efficiency on captious resources.This principle is hard to digest as we believe that we should utilize contentedness to its maximum accomplishable value. all reduction in the same would mean losing out on productive opportunities, result ing in increasing costs. However, by keeping all the machines busy at tall times does not necessarily transform into higher(prenominal) output or higher productivity. We frequently encounter the problems of growing queues due to the presence of a hardly a(prenominal) bottleneck machines and jobs spending a lot of time waiting for resources due to mismanagement. All this ultimately results in increasing the lead time of the jobs which culminates in the increase of the organizational costs, which flummox been enlisted in the former table. In the long run, these costs actually prove to be greater than the opportunity costs of not utilizing the spare cleverness. Hence, the spare capacity should be considered as a strategic investment that will pay for itself many times over in increased sales, higher musical note, and lower total costs.Traditional tactile sensationIn order to reduce our lead times, we nominate to improve our efficiencies.QRM Principle 3Measure the reduction of l ead times and make this the main performance rhythm. Eliminate traditional measures of employment and efficiency.This is again a measure which is very hard to digest. We always measure the usefulness of any process through its efficiency and utilization. However, the problem with the traditional belief is not that efficiency is not an important measure, but that most measures of efficiency result in increased lead time which ultimately harms the organization. Large batches are used in a lot of companies in a bid to reduce the setup costs. However this very measure results in increasing the lead time which can culminate in the same problems as enlisted in the previous principle. There are numerous examples to show the scope of reduction of lead time in organizations, a prominent one being the case study in Becker (2001) which showed how lead time for a declivity of spare parts for the oil drilling industry dropped from 40 days to 5 days using reduction of lead time as the main per formance measure in a manufacturing cell.QRM says that the quantities as calculated by EOQ are not appropriate and consistent with the goal of reducing lead time as EOQ doesnt consider many costs of large lots like expediting of late orders, overtime cost for trying to speed up late jobs, WIP holding costs including space. Also quality problems are detected much later than with small lots and the amount of rework and scrap generated is also much big. At the same time, another important point which is missed in EOQ is the lack of responsiveness which occurs when the process is carried out with large lots. Large lots and planning for the same makes it difficult for the organization to respond quickly to change in customer needs. Nor can good lot sizes for QRM be predicted by the MRP system, since it assumes fixed queue times regardless of workload.Hence, in order to reduce the lead times throughout the organization, it is important for everyone in a manufacturing firm, and especially for senior managers, to understand the dynamics of factory operations. The senior managers need to defend a unsubtle outlook and decide on the policies of manufacturing and performance measures only after fully understanding the effects of capacity utilization, efficiency measures, and lot sizing policies on lead time.Traditional Versus QRM Views of Capacity and Lot Sizing.Source QRM and POLCAA Winning Combination forManufacturing Enterprises in the 21st Century Rajan Suri.The differences between the traditional and QRM views can be discover from the figure given above. Traditional performance measures of utilization and efficiency encourage managers to exploit their resources to the maximum possible value. Production is considered infeasible only when the capacity utilization exceeds their maximize resource utilization, and only think active their capacity limit as a boundary between feasible and infeasible production targets. Also the perception is that larger lot sizes lead to increase in efficiency. However, QRMs focus is solely on reducing lead time, and hence the impact of utilization and lot size on the same is studied. Higher utilization leads to increase in lead time, whereas lead time first decreases and then increases with increase in lot size. It is essential to consider all such manufacturing dynamics in order to come up with a process that minimizes the lead time and in that respectby costs.Traditional BeliefWe must place great importance on on-time delivery performance by each of our departments and our suppliers.QRM Principle 4Stick to measuring and reward reduction of lead times.According to QRM on-time performance is an outcome not a performance measure. Because if on time is considered as performance measure departments will quote longer lead-time to match up with on-time delivery. Again this will result in Response time spiral and results in poor performance of organization. But with QRM, organization will focus on shortening lead-t ime as a performance measure. In QRM its called QRM Number (measure of lead time reduction). This will eliminates Response Time Spiral and performance of organization will improve.Traditional BeliefInstalling a material requirements planning (MRP) systemwill help in reducing lead times.QRM Principle 5Use MRP for high level planning and coordination of materials. Restructure the manufacturing organization into simpler product- oriented cells. Complement this with POLCA, a new material control method that combines the best of push and pull strategies.MRP systems are of great help in managing material supply and ordering but lead-time cannot be reduced using MRP. MRP should be used on high level planning and coordination not on cell level in a cellular structure implemented by QRM, whereas POLCO can be used to manage material between cells and at bottom cells. POLCO basically a hybrid of push and pull systems using benefits of both.Traditional BeliefSince long lead-time items need to be ordered in large quantities, we should negotiate quantity discounts with suppliers.QRM Principle 6Motivate suppliers to implement QRM, resulting in small lot deliveries at lower cost, better quality, and short lead times.This phenomena can be again seen as entering in Response Time Spiral in which if company buys in large batches this makes supplier to have longer lead time and company to order even larger batches. Internal and outdoor(a) incentives like discounts motivate ordering in large batches. The results this can be sustain in John Deere where implementation of QRM with suppliers reduced cost and also improved quality with shorter lead-time and batches.Traditional BeliefWe should encourage our customers to buy our products in large quantities by offering price breaks and quantity discounts.QRM Principle 7Educate customers on your QRM program, and negotiate a schedule of moving to smaller lot deliveries at level-headed prices.Not only at the supply side, the small lot co ncept needs to be applied at the distribution end too. Normally it is the tendency of the sales force to get higher orders by offering quantity discounts. This will again lead to the spiral of increasing lot sizes, both during the process as well as on the procurement side, ultimately leading to lowering of delivery performance. By implementing QRM, a company can reduce its costs manifold which can then be passed on to the customers. There is a need to demonstrate to the customer that the company can deliver high quality at low prices even for small lots, which would be more beneficial both to the company as well as the customer. Thus, the idea of small lots percolates throughout the organization, from top to bottom, as well as throughout the supply chain, from supplier to customer.Traditional BeliefWe can implement QRM by forming squads in each department.QRM principle 8Cut through functional boundaries by forming a Quick Response emplacement Cell (Q-ROC), which is a closed-loop, collocated, multifunctional, cross-trained team responsible for a family of products aimed at a focused target market segment, and empower the Q-ROC to make necessary decisions.The traditional approach might result in local quality improvements in the respective departments. However, QRM is more concerned with the overall organization than just one department. The requirement is to mown the overall lead time for manufacturing as well as office operations for which Q-ROCs are more appropriate. Such Q-ROCs result in significant reduction of lead times for jobs such as cost estimating, quoting, and order processing. Closed-loop implies that the team would be self-sufficient in dealing with all the problems related to reducing lead time. This implies cutting across functional boundaries and changing the reporting structures to ensure the success of the process. Needless to say, this team needs to be given power in order to make the decisions as reducing lead time is the primary goal o f the organization. The best example would be that of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company, in Rockford, which reduced its applied science and order processing time for customized cutters from 10 days to half a day after implementing QRM principles. However, QRM should not be considered as an application of Reengineering as by using principles of system dynamics in the design of Q-ROCs, providing specialized engineering and management principles for manufacturing organizations, plus by changing management principles and performance measures and adopting a company-wide approach, QRM goes much deeper than Reengineering.Traditional BeliefThe reason for implementing QRM is so that we can charge our customers more for rush jobs.QRM Principle 9The reason for embarking on the QRM journey is that it leads to a truly productive company with a more arrest future. Also, lower cost/price, higher quality and shorter lead times result in highly contented customers.Charging more for speedy response is sustainable only in the short-term. In the long run, it is quality which differentiates a product from its competitors, and the same purpose is served by QRM. Searching for ways of squeezing time out uncovers quality problems and wasted social movements. Changing policies and adopting measures to rectify the same results in higher quality, lower WIP, less overhead, lower operating costs, and greater sales. The QRM Approach yields even better results than slender Manufacturing as it ignores the wastes caused by long lead times. QRM takes the goal of waste reduction to the next level, creating an even leaner enterprise that will remain a terrible competitor for years to come.Traditional BeliefImplementing QRM will require large investments in technology.QRM Principle 10The biggest obstacle to QRM is not technology, but mindset. Management must recognize this and combat it through training. Next, companies should engage in low-cost or no-cost lead time reductions, leaving expensi ve technological solutions for a later stage.As we have seen in many quality improving methodologies like Six Sigma, House of Quality the most important factor in the success of these initiatives is their acceptance by all the members of the organization and QRM is no different. Realigning of all employees, from the shop floor to the boardroom, from desk workers to senior managers, to the QRM principles is a pre-requisite for the success of QRM, and hence training gains significance. Normally, performance measurement is tie to the cost accounting system which is an impediment to the successful implementation of QRM. Performance measurement must be aligned with the principles of QRM if the company has to benefit from the same.In a nutshell, the following points can be summarized about Quick Response ManufacturingIt requires measurement and efforts to minimize the metric, Manufacturing Critical-path Time (MCT), which is defined as the typical amount of calendar time from when a custo mer creates an order, through the critical-path, until the first piece of that order is delivered to the customer. This can be measured using the QRM number.Some changes in the structure of the organization are necessary to ensure the success of QRM. It basically requires the strategy of the organization to change from cost-based to replete(p)ly time-based with full emphasis on lead time minimization.Functional to cellularCellular manufacturing is a pre-requisite of QRM as the cells yield greater flexibility in manufacturing.Top-down Control to aggroup OwnershipQRM requires the formation of closed-loop, cross-functional teams which need to be given complete power for monitoring the processes.Specialized Workers to a Cross-trained WorkforceSince the success of the process requires reduction in lead times across all the departments, there is a need to provide proper training to the workers so that they can perform multiple tasks and have a broader outlook.Efficiency/Utilization Goal s to Lead Time ReductionThe evaluation parameters, performance measures have to foment from the traditional accounting measures to the goal of lead time reduction.The following steps need to be implemented in the organization so that QRM is a successCreating a QRM mindsetThe most important part is to make people realise the advantages of QRM over the previous measures i.e. the wastes created due to long lead time which are even ignored in flow Manufacturing. Thereafter, a high-level QRM Steering Committee needs to be formed to oversee the QRM efforts. Also, like Six Sigma,by providing QRM training, some employees can be made QRM champions who can then be entrusted with the responsibility of the upchucks on a daily basis.Changing of organizational structureCross-functional planning team are formed to study feasible projects to which QRM can be applied. This would require the management to indulge in a detailed analysis of various consideration like Manufacturing Critical PathTime, product volumes, needs relating to strategy and other factors. Thereafter, QRM cells are formed and training and cross-training is provided to the operators in these cells by an implementation team which consists of members in the new cell as well as planning team members. Measurement of MCT is done to monitor lead time.Including of system dynamicsQRM requires going through the policies on utilization and efficiency in order to get back the proper loading of the cells. It also calls for making provisions for spare capacities and reduction in the batch sizes in order to reduce the lead time.Enterprisewide expansion of QRMThe process would typically begin with a single project. If the project is a success, its results need to be conveyed to all the members of the organization and more projects need to be undertaken based on QRM principles. QRM should not be restricted to the organization alone but should be extended through the entire supply chain. E.g. the suppliers should also be motivated to inculcate and apply the principles of QRM which would have mutual benefits for both parties.POLCA The material Control System for QRMPOLCO is Paired-cell Overlapping Loops of Cards. To implement this system the company need to create cells of the production process focusing on subsets for similar parts and then it processes a given customer order through differing cells depending on the needs of that order.High Level MRP is used to provide high level planning and coordination of materials from external suppliers and across these internal cells. But cells are managed individually.To explain POLCO we can take an example of a shop floor.Assume P1 focuses on color printing and P2 on black white printing after which we have three Formatting Cells, F1, F2 and F3, which convert the printed sheets into reports with the desired pages. After formatting comes binding operation, which include punching holes and notches, cutting the sheets, and bending, A1 to A4. Finally, all orde rs go to the Shipping Cell S1, where the packaged plates are placed in shipping containers and then tight onto carts. The material control system used is POLCA where High Level MRP and a cellular organization is a prerequisite.In this case all Release times are created with the help of High Level MRP. But even after authorization of POLCO work will not begin until all conditions are met.POLCO separate are used to communicate and control the material movement between cells. As Figure shows the POLCA measure flows for a particular order at any organization based on initial design. This orders routing takes it from P1 to F2, then to A4 for binding, and finally to S1 to be shipped. This order will therefore proceed through the POLCA display board loops with the pairs P1/F2, F2/A4 and A4/S1.If cell P1 has a job authorized that is going to F3 next, then a P1/F3 wit must be available at P1 in order for it to begin that job. If a P1/F3 card is not available, that means that there is a bottleneck at F3 and working on that job will only add to the work-in-process at F3. Instead, it would be better for P1 to put its resources into a job that is needed by another cell that is not backlogged. So the cell team at P1 skips the P1/F3 job for now, and looks at the next authorized job to see if a card is available for that job, and so on.Differences from KANBANPOLCO cards only control flow between cells not within.POLCA cards are not product specific but they are specific to particular pair of cells.POLCO cards are used as capacity signal whereas Kanban is used as inventory signal. As return of POLCA card from a downriver cell signals that the cell has available capacity.Benefits yielded by POLCAPOLCA helps in managing short-term fluctuations in capacity and also assists in reducing congestion on the shop floor. If a POLCA card from a downstream cell is not available, it means that that cell or some other cell further downstream is backlogged with work. Hence it does not make sense allocating further work to that particular job, without replanning of resources, as this will only increase inventory in the system since somewhere downstream there is a lack of capacity to work on this job. A better alternative would be to use this cell for some other job during the time being.POLCA cards flow in longer loops which allows the production to respond to changes in admit or differences in the complexities of jobs. The additional jobs in the loop can act as a original to absorb variations in demand and product mix which makes it highly suitable to meet the needs of responsiveness. On the contrary, the pull system stresses on achieving constant takt times throughout the organization, ignoring the fact that a variety of products will require different manufacturing times.Benefits of Quick Response ManufacturingProduct leadingThe main objective of QRM is to minimize lead times. By implementing QRM, a company attains many beneficial and competitive advantages. Benefits of Quick Response ManufacturingProduct LeadershipQRM enables a firm to have shorter time to market. Thus a firm can reach out to customers with the latest technology while competitors play catch-up. There are two ways of looking at it. The first is that a given point of time a firms product would be superior to that of its competitor. other point of view is that since a firm has shorter lead time it can deliver technology that is openly available to the market much earlier. Thus, the firm can skim the market due to its superior product. This can be depicted on a time line . trim back working capitalLower lead times permit companies to have lower raw material and finished goods inventory. As a result the working capital requirement is decreased. This places the firm in a better strategic plaza to utilise their resources and capital.Better position to increase market shareThe lower lead times increase the firms responsiveness to opportunities in the environment. This increa sed responsiveness helps the firm attract customers and increase its market share.Increased inventory turnsSince the production system is triggered by demand, smaller batches are produced, inventory decreases, and the number of inventory turns increases. Many inefficient producers have substantial amounts of capital tied up in inventory therefore, their inventory turns are low. trim back the cost of quality by minimising reworkCellular manufacturing places more responsibility and accountability on specific production teams. This results in specialization which inherently increases the quality of the product. It is much easier to pinpoint defects since the problems are directly traceable to certain teams or members. This has a positive impact on the quality of products.Cost ReductionQRM aims at finding opportunities to improve the existing process. This results in lower operating costs. Using QRM, companies are able to save, in some cases, up to 25% of total operating costs by solv ing problems before they happen. change magnitude Long Term competitivenessQRM ultimately aims at enhancing the long term competitiveness of the team. The above mentioned benefits are only the stepping stones in the right direction. The enhanced competitiveness of the firm ensures that is objective of enhancing shareholder value is fulfilled.Issues of Quick Response ManufacturingIncreased reliance on suppliersQRM requires a strong relationship with ones raw material suppliers and partners. To act to demand, a manufacturing firm must closely partner with suppliers that will quickly accommodate the firms production schedule. However, if the supplier cannot provide raw materials due to problems such as quality assurance/control, equipment repair or sum total labour, the manufacturing firm may not be able to meet customer requirements. This could result in old-hat outs and backorders.Change ManagementIt can be very difficult to implement QRM in a manufacturing environment. QRM is a b usiness enabling philosophy that works top-down and therefore, changes the roles and responsibilities of the employees. Traditional roles, from lower levels through upper management, are drastically modified and the corporate infrastructure is typically altered. Employees can be extremely apathetic to these changes, which is a barrier that could significantly hinder the implementation process and the success of QRM. To implement QRM, companies must have example from all functions i.e line and support functions (production, planning, purchasing, engineering, manufacturing, quality, finance and human resources) to facilitate the implementation. All functional areas need to buy-in to QRM philosophy to successfully implement such a major change in the way the firm does business.What Differentiates QRM from Lean?First and foremost is the QRM mindset the driver for all the principles and strategies in QRM is reduction of lead time. This time-based mindset results in many operating polici es that are different from traditional ones. In contrast the driver in JIT/Lean is waste reduction.Although the business press has been talking about the importance of lead time reduction, or speed, for over a decade, we find that most companies still lack the knowledge and the tools to effectively reduce their lead times. worse still, policies are in place that are lengthening, rather than shortening, lead times. QRM devotes a substantial amount of effort in educating management and workers on why these traditional policies result in long lead times, and in showing them the QRM principles that must be put in place instead.QRM is a companywide strategy. While the original implementation of JIT/Lean at Toyota may well have encompassed the whole company, most Western implementations of JIT/Lean have focused on manufacturing and materials management. In many cases, JIT/Lean has been interpreted even more narrowly as merely implementing a pull system with kanban cards. In contrast, QRM clarifies at the outset that it is a companywide strategy with implications removed beyond the shop floor, and principles for other company areas, such as, office operations, are clearly presented as part of the QRM philosophy.QRM provides rational principles and tools for lead time reduction. QRM uses an understanding of system dynamics, and exploits this understanding to define the best structures and policies that will reduce lead times. QRM begins by educating employees and giving them insight into these system dynamics. This then helps justify, to management and workers, the need for changes in policies. state-of-the-art analysis tools such as the MPX software package incorporate this analysis of system dynamics and help to derive the specific changes needed and to quantify the benefits that would be achieved.For companies making a large variety of products with multivariate demand, as well as for companies making highly engineered products, the JIT/Lean strategy of pull is either inefficient or breaks down altogether. For such companies, QRM provides an alternati

Self Reflection Analysis In The Social Work Sector Social Work Essay

Self Reflection analytic thinking In The Social Work Sector Social Work analyseSocial work traffic pattern rotter be seen as a very complex process as it seeks to recruit societal change, kind justice, equality, anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive suffices and excessively social inclusion. It is and so significant that as social workers, we hypothesize and evaluate our do in order that the values we stand for be promoted and adhered to. Reflective exercising is therefore a vogue of making social work callingals to a greater extent account able-bodied by dint of an ongoing scrutiny of the principles upon which the profession is based (Fook, 2002). However, Ixer (1999) criticizes that take a hopive institutionalize has simply be hang un exact and Orthodox mainly beca drug abuse it can be applied in many expressions and across many professions. None the less, Donald Schn (1983) a key theoretician of polishive practice, saw ruminative practice as a way forward for professionals to bridge the gap amidst the theoretic and practical eyeshot of their work by unearthing the actual possible action which is embedded in what they do, kind of than what they say they do. He made it clear that by being resound practician, one is aw be of the theories or presumptions lowlining your practice and what bodily functions to take in modify your practice or providing better services for the service user. To me reflective practice is therefore like a looking glass or reflect where you as a practitioner submit the opportunity to correct or redirect your cut across of performance. For the mark of this assignment, I am going to use a pillow effect drive from my previous practice system to embellish my reflection and evaluation of my own practice, how the use of self, my beliefs and values might be in possession of influenced my actions, how I leave bourgeoned new significance and bring ining through peer supervision/feed adventure and th e unit lectures and how theories underpinning reflective practice may booster in improving my practice as a social worker. shell studyI e-mailed the information mentor at N. Middle trail concerning a boy named J (for secludedity purposes). A 12-year old, of White- British background, who was referred to my previous placement agency for having behavioral problems (such as fighting with his peers, being disruptive during lessons, disrespecting his teacher and global misconduct) at take aim. J from an early age of almost 6 had witnessed Domestic Violence in his family. My concern was that J had revealed very confidential education to me regarding his ma and her ex-boy athletic supporter (his understoods ex-boyfriend was violent toward his unsounded and he witness it as well). J was worried that this might happen again since his milliamperes ex-boyfriend was back into his mums look and sleeps over some successions at the family home. I advised the prepare ab emerge this revelation since it was a indoctrinate referral and also because J had mentioned that any time his mums ex sleeps over it affects him and his behaviour at school becomes disruptive cod to the worries he has. When I passed this data to the school government, the school also certain Js mum just about(predicate) it which I matte up was non appropriate collect to the fact that Js mum had been very wary as to what study or issues J would reveal to professionals. In my email I also pointed out the fact that the religious belieffulness and self-reliance J had towards me could be undermined since his mum got inform about this although it was suppose to be confidential among professionals.Reflection and Evaluation of my practiceIn this case study, I felt that the school authorities should consecrate acted more professionally. They should have contacted me first before informing Js mum further this was non the case. I only when got to know that they had communicate Js mum when she asked me questions or tried to clarify the issues that J had revealed to me. Although, this fact didnt mar my professional alliance with the school authorities at the time, it has made me wary of how much data I can share with other professionals and how that special(a) information should be treated (if very confidential).I felt that I had eroded the confidence and confidence between J and I because his mum got to know about what J had revealed to me although he did not want her knowing. Order to maintain the boldness and confidence we had, I should have sought Js consent first. Also the school should have contacted me first before informing Js mum so that my trust and confidence in the school could be maintained as well. I also felt that this broken trust and confidence might come about to other professions who might be working with J in future. This arrest could therefore distance J from other professionals (including myself). He might control all professionals as untrustworthy and as enemies rather helpers. This therefore meant that I did uphold public trust and confidence in social flush services as enshrined in the jurisprudence of practice for social workers (TOPPS, 2004)I felt that J was very opened and honest to me. He had trust and confidence in me as well. I listened to him as a friend in a professional capacity which I feel he contained. However, I felt I let him take down in this situation because he was not made aware that his mum would be informed (issue of consent).This issue of confidentiality posed as a big ethical predicament for me, in that I questioned myself whether it was function for the school to have informed Js mum about his revelation? Have I broken Js trust and confidence by informing the school about this? And am I right to question the school authorities why they shared the information with Js mum even though the referral was made by the school. These were ethical dilemmas I was face with before emailing the Learning mentor. I was therefore aware of these ethical dilemmas and competitiveness of interest and the implication to my practice (social work value A). However, not share-out the information could also mean that I would be held responsible for my actions if something went wrong.Furthermore, I felt this could have been an issue of potential discrimination, in that the school had lose the effect on J, and also the relationship between mother and son, this could have potentially est graded Js relationship with his mum, the school and even me. If this happened, he would be reluctant in dealing with professionals and this may pose as a barrier to him accessing the needed support he may require.Theories used in case studyIn this case study, the gathering and use of information was the main focus. Establishing service user confidentiality is as principal(prenominal) as providing the need/service for him/her. However, though the issue of confidentiality is usually negotiated and established during the agreement see with the service user, there are wads of ethical dilemmas surrounding this (as to whom you can share the information with and how much of that information can be shared. Seden (2005) mentioned all the way that in working with Children services it is particularly difficult to have ingrained confidentiality because a child may reveal something or an issue in confidence which may be a child aegis issue. And as a professional you would have to share this information with others so that wide awake action can be taken. It highlights the fact that in child resistance issues, safeguarding and promoting the childs welfare is paramount (Children Act 1989) rather than confidentiality.Yet the Data protection Act 1998 and my previous placement agencys insurance policy on confidentiality also informed me of my practice. In accordance with the Data Protection Act 1998, it entreats all agencies that have access to peoples personal information to keep it safe and must only use the information solely for the purpose for which the information was sought. It also mode that if personal information about people fall into the wrong reach it can be used maliciously and our right to private and family action (Human Rights Act 1998) could be contravened. Personal data can further be use to enforce discriminatory and oppressive practice by victimisation it to categorise people in terms of service delivery.Another important guess in this case study was multi-disciplinary and multi-agency working. The Working together register (DOH, 2006) highlights the importance of multidisciplinary and inter agency working in children work force. This put down was put together by Department Of Health, Department for Education and participation and the Home Office. It serves as a guide to inter-agency working to safeguard and promote the welfare of children as well. In my first placement setting, it was good practice to liaise with the lead profession al/organisation that carried out the assessment and referred the case to my agency. All relevant information and process of the intervention were shared with the other agencies involved. In this way I was working according to my agency policy of liaising with other agencies, following the legal requirement of the working together chronicle and meeting unit 17 of the National Occupational Standards (TOPPS 2004). In doing so I was able to communicate effectively with other professionals and this also facilitated information sacramental manduction between professionals.Theories of ReflectionUsing the case study as a reference point, I take in that most of the reflection I did took place after the event. This is what Schn (1998) referred to as reflection-on-action. According to Schn (1998), reflection-on-action therefore means that as a professional, I only sit back after I have undertaken the intervention to think about what I did, how I did and whether there were any ethical make outations I took for granted. In doing so I am able to analyse and critical evaluate my actions and practice and improve on my shortcoming. For example, in the case study scenario, I checkd that the trust and confidence J had in me was eroded once his mum was informed about his revelation to me. Had I reflected before the event or during my meeting with J (reflection-in-action), I would have made him aware that his mum would hear about it and hence J and I could have come to an amicable agreement as to how to inform his mum. This might have provided a more positive outcome rather than the presented outcome in the case study.This same place of reflection-on-action can be related to Gibbs model of reflection. In Gibbs (1988) model, he identified half dozen key stages of reflection Stage 1 Description of the event A detailed description of the event you are reflecting on.Stage 2 Feelings and Thoughts (Self awareness) Recalling and exploring those things that were going on inside your head.Stage 3 Evaluation- making a judgment about what has happened. Consider what was good about the beget and what was bad about the commence or what did or didnt go so wellStage 4 Analysis- Breaking the event down into its component parts so they can be explored separately.Stage 5 finis (Synthesis) -Here you have explored the issue from different angles and have a lot of information to base your judgement. It is here that you are likely to develop taste into you own and other peoples behaviour in terms of how they contributed to the outcome of the event. The purpose of reflection at this stage is to learn from the experience.Stage 6 achieve Plan-During this stage you should think forward into encountering the event again and to plan what you would do would you act differently or would you likely to do the same?These six stages of Gibbs model serve as aiding tools to help professionals critically reflect on their experiences. For instance, through detail description in m y case study I am able reflect on my feelings and thoughts towards the school authorities and how my actions may have affected the welfare of J. I have also been able to identify that I did not promote the social work code of practice (upholding public trust and confidence in social services). When go about with a similar situation like this in future or in practice, I believe I would think critically and reflect critically before passing information to other professionals with the view that the information will be used solely for the intended purpose.However, another reflective model is that developed by David Kolb (1984) on experiential learning. Kolb (1984) created his famous model out of four elements concrete experience, observation and reflection, the formation of abstract concepts and examen in new situations. These entire four elements are connected in a circular way. Kolb (1984) argued that the experiential learning cycle can go at any one of the four points and that it should really be subscribe as a continuous and unending process. Meaning, the learning process very much begins with a person carrying out a particular action and thence see the effect of the action in the given event or intervention. Following this, the second stage is reached in which the professional/learner understands these effects in the event or intervention so that if the same action was taken in the same mountain it would be possible to cry what would follow from the action. With this understanding, the third stage is to understand the general principle under which the particular instance happens.Generalising may involve actions over a range of situations/events for the professional or learner to gain experience beyond the particular instance and suggest the general principle. Understanding the general principle does not imply, in this sequence, an ability to express the principle in a symbolic medium but rather implies only the ability to see a connection between th e actions and effects over a range of circumstances.When the general principle is understood, the last stage is the application through action in a new circumstance within the range of generalisations. Thus the action is taking place in a different set of circumstances and the learner is now able to anticipate the possible effects of the action. ii aspects can be seen as especially noteworthy the use of concrete, here-and-now experience to test ideas and use of feedback to change practices and theories (Kolb 1984 21-22).Relating Kolb model to my case study, I felt that by emailing my concerns to the school mentor about how the information was treated seemed a more professional way of dealing with the issue. As the school authorities later apologised to me about their actions. I do believe that if I am faced with a similar situation with other professionals I would elegantly challenge their actions in a similar manner as I have done before and if it works I might popularise that th is approach works well. This would therefore give me new convey and a new perspective as to how to work with other professional collaborative in achieving the desired outcomes for service users.Feedback from my peers.During the learning sets meetings, I presented his case study to my peers and one the learning points from them was that I had assumed that the school authorities would not inform Js mum about the revelation and because of that I hadnt insisted on them care the information as confidential as possible until such a time when consent had been sought from J. I in my view this is what Brookfield (1988) called assumption outline in critical reflection. To him, Assumption analysis describes the activity adults submit in to bring to awareness beliefs, values, heathenish practices, and social structures regulating behaviour and to assess their impact on our dad to day activities. Assumptions may therefore be paradigmatic, prescriptive, or causal (Brookfield 1995). He stress es that assumptions structure our way of seeing reality, govern our behavior, and describe how relationships should be ordered. Assumption analysis as a first step in the critical reflection process makes plain our takenforgranted notions of reality. Members of the learning set also raised my awareness to the fact that the underlying assumption I had about the case could maybe being derived from my own beliefs, value base, cultural and social background, agency policies, my grammatical gender and race. Brookfield (1995) highlighted this by noting that a contextual awareness is achieved when adult learners come to realise that their assumptions are socially and personally created in a specific historical and cultural context. I should therefore have been self aware of the influences my personal, cultural and social (Thompson, 2006) may have had in the given case study.Also, the learning sets helped me to unearthing or understand more about the power imbalances that exist between s ervice users and professionals. One of my group members made it clear that possibly the school authorities acted the way they did because they had the power to do so and as a way of proving to his mum that the boys problem was generated from home rather at school because the mum blames the school authorities constantly for her sons behaviour. According to Mandell (2008), power affects the experience and behaviour of both the practitioner and service user and so the practitioner needs to ask, or be asked, where does power lie in his/her relationship, how does it fail and who is defining the character and direction of whats taking place. Therefore, to be a critical reflective practitioner I need to acknowledge the power imbalances in my practice before making decisions or embarking on a course of action. Its also important for me to consider all the angles and checks out all the expand before taking the plunge (Payne, 2002, p124) so that a more opened, honest, fair, just, anti-discr iminatory and anti-oppressive practice can be achieved in my service delivery.The case study analysis with my peers provided me yet with another very important learning point. Thus, in sharing the information with the school authorities, I was focusing more on the theory (the Every Child Matters and working together agenda) for off the peg declaration (Thompson, 2005, p146) or what Schn (1998) calls technical rationality, the belief that well developed theory can provide solutions for professionals. Rather, I should have used both my hypothetical background and past experiences to help inform me of my practice. This would have had a more balancing effect or less impact on J. With this now, I am confident that my decisions and actions in future placements would be drawn from my theoretical or formal knowledge and that of my past experiences or informal knowledge.ConclusionSumming up, I feel that this unit has provided me with greater insight about how my actions or decisions are in fluenced by my belief system, culture, values, gender, religion, assumptions, political and social orientation. It have also learnt that drawing from the views of others, I would be able to see the issue or problem from a different perspective and this might help me develop a new meaning of the event. Mezirow (2000) called the process of developing this new meaning of the event as perspective transformation. I now also understand that as a social worker, t would have draw on knowledge from all sources (theoretical and non-theoretical) in order to address the messy complexities of real-life situations and to consider each individual situation or event unique (Yelloly Henkel, 1995).Therefore, the way forward for me as a social worker is to critical reflect on the use of self, the awareness of power imbalances (deconstruction) and the development of new meaning/ perspective( re-construction) illustrated by Howe (2008).

Reflection In Occupational Therapy Practice

grammatical construction In occupational Therapy chargeI take on al slipway struggled with face, initially I didnt sop up the point of going over and over events that had happened, I was confident that the action I had taken at the time was serious for the moment, and if I felt that it wasnt I would acknowledge that and improve b effecting time, obviously this process is going on in my head, (according to Schon this is watching in action), and improves with ensure over time, I after part understand how reflecting lavatory back up with thought and behavioural processes, and also provides evidence so others can see the come to the forecomes of my actions. It seems to me that condemnation is utilizationd to teach people skills that they may not have, some people atomic number 18 good with people and some are not, I do not think that is something that can be taught. You either have it or you dont.Initially I was quite apprehensive with my choice of location community mental health having worked, with adults with mental health problems, in the past, I was basing my past fix on what I would last at the transcription and my past experiences had not al shipway been positive, so I was maybe a little anxious to start with. What I found was totally contrasting to my preconceptions, I had never experienced class work before, and was interested with the repair this would have on the service users and also what the occupational Therapy (OT) role was. The therapists were thither to facilitate, and fight down the group processes, initially I queried that the OTs were to a greater extent counsellors than OTs, and galore(postnominal) had elect to gain a counselling qualification to aid their role. Then again If eachthing is nearly occupation and has meaning to some iodin, because to en adequate an individual(a) with disordered self-importance-importance esteem, or mild depression to engage with their fellow peers could be part of the OT role, e specially if it enables them to participate in work, leisure and self care. My fine calamity is taken from one experience in a fictive group, half way with my placement. brooding commit is not a new concept Boud, Keogh and Walker (1985) stated 20 years ago that it features the individual and their experiences, leading to a new conceptual perspective or understanding. They included the element of widenment, as well as involvement of the self, to see reflective traffic patternReflection is a forum of repartee of the disciple to experience (Boud et al. 1985)Johns and Freshwater (1998) also described the value of reflective work issue as a means of acquirement. T here is no doubt that contemplation is a complex concept that has defied consensus on definition although some commonalities exist. It involves the self and is triggered by questioning of actions, values and beliefs. An understanding of the purpose of reflective practice and its components can be gained by pic k uping some of the definitions provided in literature. A few useful definitions include the followingReflection is a process of reviewing an experience of practice in order to describe, analyse, evaluate and so in descriptor learn around practice (Reid, 1993) musing practice is something more than thoughtful practice. It is that form of practice that seeks to problematise m either concomitants of lord performance so that they can wrench potential schooling situations and so the practitioners can continue to learn, grow and develop in and through practice (Jarvis, 1992).To maximise learning through tiny thoughtfulness we need to locate ourselves within the experience and explore operable theory, knowledge and experience to understand the experience in different ways. hence Boyd Fales (1983) claim that critical reflectionis the core difference amidst whether a person repeats the same experience several times becoming extremely proficient at ones behaviour, or learns fro m experience in such a way that he or she is cognitively or affectively changed.Critical reflection is viewed as transformational learning which according to Baumgartner (2001) can happen either in stages or from a sudden or critical incident and shorten the way people see themselves and their world. consort to Kolb (1984) reflecting is an essential element of learning. He developed the wheel around of experiential learning which has formed the basis of many models for reflective practice in the past two decades. Kolb draws charge to the concomitant that, when we want to learn from something that has already happened to us, we need to recall our expressions of the event and thence reflect on those observations in some way. Once we have these ideas in our heads, Kolb suggests that we frame some action as a result and that this viable course of action is seen as our learning. This leave alone then inform any action that we take as a result of the experience. Kolb (1984) advo cated that experiential learning was a cyclical process, emphasising that there was no end to learning precisely just another(prenominal) cycle. The crux of experiential learning is that the learner in not a passive recipient of facts of life, but actively explores and tests their environment.Schon (1983) suggests that we can engage in reflection in one of two ways either by reflecting on action, after the experience, or by reflecting in action, during the experience. When reflecting-on-action, the first step in the process is the description of the incident. Much care has been given to the value of recording events and experiences in written form, particularly through the use of reflective diaries and journals (Zubbrizarreta 1999 and Tryssenaar 1995). The exercise of diary writing promotes both the qualities needed for reflection, i.e. Open-mindedness and motivation and also the skills i.e. self- alive(predicate)ness description and observation critical analysis and problem-solv ing and implication and evaluation (Richardson Maltby, 1995).www.practicebasedlearning.orgPre-requisites for effective reflective practice include honesty and openness. Gillings (2000) states that a commitment to self-enquiry and a readiness to change practice are master(prenominal) if the individual is to bother the most out of the process. Many authors identify self-awareness as essential to the reflective process. This implies that the individual needs to be well inform of their own character, including beliefs and values. Many models of reflective practice also include self awareness and questioning of beliefs, values and attitudes. The conk stage of many models of reflection relates to a bequeathingness to change practice, where new conceptual perspectives are reached in order to inform practice. If the learner is not willing to change practice they will not gain the potential benefits from the process in terms of practice developing, advances will not be made and profe ssional practice will not evolve.As an OT professional I am required to use clinical understandinging skills which enable me to make responsible therapeutic decisions these decisions are based on professional judgements which are guided by individual morals and ethical values. (Sabonis-Chafee Hussey 1998) My understanding of morals will be open upon my background, social environment, values and possibly religious beliefs, whilst ethics isthe study and school of thought of human contact(Purtilo, cited in Sabonis-Chafee Hussey 1998)Every professional organisation has a code of ethical conduct and core values, these provide a rule of thumb for making decisions and choices that can be regarded as proper (Creek 2003), and to assist professionals in practising the values and principles that promote and take hold high standards in OT. The main principles draw in the code of ethics include the ability to demonstrate fretting for the well being of the client, cause no harm, respect the rights of all involved, maintain a high level of competency, to comply with laws and set policies, to be unbiased and accurate and refrain from false claims.An understanding of ethics gives me positive general guidance rather than defining limits to certain behaviours. Ethics influence every aspect of occupational therapy. Beginning in OT education when issues of plagiarism, library resources, and confidentiality begin, and then in the clinical environment from supervision, practice issues and client issues. (Duncan 2006)In the last 20 years, reflection has gradually become more popular in care and healing professions. In many quarters, the reflective practitioner is seen as a crucial sign of the ideal practitioner. Not everyone agrees though, that truly professional or expert practitioners are or should be reflective practitioners. According to Dreyfus, real professionalism is characterised by the absence of reflection. Only novices and beginners need to think to the highest degree what they are doing. Expert practitioners, in contrast, just do what needs to be done they do it without intellection about it Practitioners, novices or experts, reflect when they consider what to do in somehow unusual situations, when they try to figure out how to handle a new and unexpected problem, when they have to choose between two nearly identical options.Kinsella (2001), in advocating reflective practice for occupational therapists, emphasised the need for both reflection and action on that reflection (praxis). From this perspective, in order to learn from the reflective experience it is necessary to interpolate the formula way of responding. Argyris and Schn (1974) termed this double-loop learning. The act of paying attention to what would usually be routine may become part of a yen process, with the stimulus being noticed again and again until further consult reflection is required. Schn (1983) noted that reflection-in-action was precipitated by a surprise, so mething not expected, interrupting the normal flow of experience. However, there are almost certainly ways in which a reflection is triggered other than this. An educational event may do this or a series of conversations with a colleague or an observation of a colleagues practice (reflection-on-action).Critical IncidentCreative GroupK was attending a weekly creative group at the unit, it was 2 weeks before Christmas and we were making paper chains. K had a very hold attention span and could be quite disruptive, during quiet periods in the group she would whistle, sigh, hum, tap fingers or pencils on the table which we would edit foc using quite on her creative project. The previous week K had referred to the OT as Blondie which I thought was inappropriate and mentioned this to the OT, she said she had been aware but had chosen to ignore the incident and see what would happen this week.I had chosen to use pair of scissors with a crinkly edge and because of this, from then on K re ferred to me as Smart-Arse or as The pupil, I didnt feel she was trying to be nasty, I felt she thought she was making a joke. I informed her that my promise was Julia in case she had forgotten and carried on with what I was doing. H the OT commented on her using the word smart a lot and wondered why that was. K replied that she was surrounded by smart people and hoped that some of it may irritate off on her. We asked if she felt uncomfortable in the group and why she felt she wasnt smart and she replied that was what she had been told all her life. K was definitely street smart, but possibly had mild learning difficulties. She then changed the subject and we spoke about her Xmas decorations, after that she called me Julia and the OT by her name.Why did I choose to respond to K? Because I felt she was disrespecting group boundariesTo get her to stopTo be aware of respecting others in the groupThere may have been another reason for her hostilityWhat happened then?She stoppedShe chose to share face-to-face experiences with the group about her life and her feelings.How was the situation handled? I feel the situation was handled well, I did not get angry, I brought her attention to my name, and with the OT we made inquiry into her reasons for her behaviour, she did not get angry.Any legal or professional issues? I had to maintain a professional manner throughout the situation, I may have been The Student but there was an expectation, I may not have been in uniform but in that capacity I was a professional, so needed to be aware of attitudes, boundaries, and behaviour.Johns model for structured reflection (1994) is more of a list of key questions to guide an analysis of a incident or general experience. Johns recognizes the benefits of sharing reflections which is an essential part of building a community of practice and the importance of the situatedness of an incident as highlighted by the attention given to influencing factors and learning as involving con sidering actions to support othersDescription Drawing out of the key issues within an experience through a description of thoughts and feelings and contextual background of the experienceReflection Examination of ones motivations and the resulting actions, the consequences of actions for all stakeholders (including their possible frantic reactions).Influencing factors Determining internal and external factors that influenced decisions and actions.Determine knowledge that did or should have influenced decisions and actions. election strategies Evaluation of ones actions and consideration of other possible choices and their respective consequences. Learning Situating the experience and feelings within past experience and future practice and in providing support to others and considering the impact the experience will have on reflection-in-action.By using Johns reflective model as a guide, I have been able to reflect on the incident and this has enabled me to evaluate the actions that I took during the incident, questioning whether my response was appropriate. It has also allowed me to think of other ways I could have dealt with the situation and the possible outcomes. The reflective strategy has helped me to learn from this experience and has given me an acumen into how I might improve my own future practice. It has also shown me that, by continuing the reflective process by following reflective frameworks such as Johns in future incidents, I may improve the ways of dealing with situations, and acknowledging that I am actually learning something from every experience that I have.ConclusionReflective practice has been identified as one of the key ways practitioners can learn from personal experience. In education it is recognised as an essential tool for students to enable them to make the connect between theory and practice. It enables practitioners to develop knowledge and skills necessary for professional practitioners. Reflective practice can be summarised as experience-reflection-action (ERA) and seen as a cycle and having the following componentsThings (experiences) that happen to a personThe reflective process that enables the person to learn from those experiencesThe action that results from the new perspectives that are taken.Reflective practice uses personal experience as a starting point for learning, by mentation about these experiences in a purposeful way the individual can understand them differently and take action as a result. The learning acquired using reflective practice differs from the theory which underpins practice, it is also different from the skills acquired from interacting with others because it involves thinking about things and actively making decisions, therefore reflective practice link up the gap between pure theory and directed practice by providing a strategy that helps to develop understanding and learning.The importance of reflection has been reinforce to me in writing up this critical incident, be cause I hadnt realised how authoritative maintaining boundaries were, and the showing of mutual respect. keep professional education is also sure as having an important role in facilitating change in practice. It is argued here that reflection on practice is the means to ensure continuing growth of both individuals and the profession in order to meet the challenge of change. Reflection may also be prompted by a challenge from another occupational therapist, a multidisciplinary team member or a student. Reflective diaries and written assignments are also useful ways of prompting exercise of theory to practice. In addition to applying theory to practice, literature searching, critiquing and reviewing, essential to graduate student education, also stimulate reflection.ReferencesAlsop, A. (2000/2004) Continuing Professional Development for therapists. U.K. Blackwell Science usable on-line at http//0www.netlibrary.com.serlib0.essex.ac.uk/Reader/Baumgartner LM (2001) An update on tr ansformational learning. forward-looking Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. No8915-22. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.Boud D, Keogh R Walker D (1985) Reflection twist experience into learning. Kogan Page, London.Boyd E Fales A (1983) reflective learning the key to learning from experience. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 23 (2) 99-117Clutterbuck, D. (1998) Learning Alliances Tapping into Talent. Institute of Personnel and Development, London.Creek, J. (2003) occupational Therapy defined as a Complex Intervention London College of Occupational Therapists. Available from http//www.cot.co.uk/public/publications/skills/ot_definition/intro.php(Accessed 13 Jan 2010)Dimond, B.C. (2004) Legal Aspects of Occupational Therapy (2nd ed.) Oxford. Blackwell ScienceDuncan, E. (2006) Foundations for Practice in Occupational Therapy (4th ed) Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone.Jasper, M. (2003) Beginning Reflective Practice Foundations in breast feeding and Health Care. Cheltenham. Nelson Thornes LtdJohns C (2000) Becoming a reflective practitioner. Blackwell Science, Oxford.Kolb DA (1984) experiential learning Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice Hall, sweet Jersey.Mattingly, C and Fleming M (1994) Clinical Reasoning Forms of Therapeutic Practice Philadelphia. F.A. Davis moon around J (1999) Reflection in Learning Professional Development. Kogan Page, London.Reid B (1993) however were Doing it Already Exploring a Response to the Concept of Reflective practice in Order to improve its Facilitation Nurse Education Today, 13 305- 309.Richardson G Maltby H (1995) reflection on practice enhancing student learning. Journal of advanced Nursing. 22235-242.Roberts, A E K (2002) Advancing Practice through Continuing Professional Education the Case for Reflection British Journal of Occupational Therapy May 65(5)Schon, D.A. (1995) The Reflective Practitioner How Professionals Think in Action. New York. elementary BooksSabonis-Chaffe B, Hussey S, M (1998) Introduction to Occupational Therapy 2nd edition, Mosby, USATryssenaar J (1999) synergetic journals an educational strategy to promote reflection. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 49 (7), 695-702.Wackerhausen, s (2009) Collaboration, Professional Identity and Reflection across Boundaries. Journal of fleshly Health 463 472Zubrizarreta J (1999) Teaching portfolios an effective strategy for faculty development in occupational therapy. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 53(1), 51-55.

Development Of Ecommerce In China Information Technology Essay

Development Of Ecommerce In chinaw be In springation Technology backsidevassE-commerce usually indicates that the tralatitious sales channel is moved to the mesh by the means of electronic techniques. E-commerce (electronic commerce or EC) is the buying and selling of goods and go on the mesh, especially the World Wide Web. (Coppel, 2000)With the using of e-commerce, the buyers and sellers conduct assorted duty degradeprise activities on the basis of the application of browser and server. E-commerce is a juvenile type of commercial business model, which underside achieve the consumer online obtain, transaction activities, financial activities and activities related to integrated go. However, e-commerce could break the interior(a) and regional barriers and make the endeavours attend globalization.E-commerce is a process that optimizes various activities continuously by adopting digital learning technology. E-commerce covers a wide range. for the most part speak ing, e-commerce can be divided into dickens forms, including Business-to-Business and Business-to-Consumer. Recently, recent models of e-commerce argon in a growth comprise, including Consumer-to-Consumer, Business-to-Manager, Business-to-Marketing and Manager-to-Consumer. (Kohavi, 2001) With the increase of ho using up servant lucre mappingrs, online obtain and bank card hire consumption in internet are becoming more than popular. At the same m, securities intentness share is quickly growing and e-commerce web sites become more and more. The around common security constitution of e-commerce has two types, including SSL (Secure Socket Layer) and SET (Secure electronic Transaction).E-commerce is an evolving concept. IBM Corporation, as the pioneer of e-commerce, proposed the concept of Electronic Commerce E-commerce owns triplet stages in the full ontogenesis. The offset printing stage is the electronic mail stage. This stage started from 1970s and the average com munications capacity grew at the speed of several times two division. The second stage is the information promulgation stage. Since 1995, the information promulgation remains grew rapidly. Web technology is an obvious representation. At present, the information promulgation system becomes the main application technology of the Internet. The tertiary stage is electronic commerce. Electronic commerce just developed in U.S.A. The ultimate objective of Internet is the commercial purpose, which is electronic commerce. (Yannis, 2001) From the threesome stages of e-commerce, it can be seen that the application of Internet plays a critical type in the development of e-commerce.2.1.2 Development of E-commerce in chinaThe e-commerce in China began in 1997. If the e-commerce in U.S.A is business advertise model, e-commerce in China relies more on technology pull push. This is a striking difference between Chinese e-commerce and American e-commerce. In the U.S.A, the habituate of e-c ommerce originated from the concept of e-commerce. The business demands of enterprises push the advancement of network and e-commerce technology, finally add to the formation of the concept of e-commerce.When the Internet age comes, the United States has owned a more advanced and developed e-commerce foundation.In China, the concept of e-commerce emerged earlier than the application and development of e-commerce. Torchbearer of e-commerce is IBM and other IT vendors. (Scott, 2006) The network and e-commerce technology requires continuously to pulling the business demands of enterprises, thereby causing the application and development of Chinese e-commerce.It is truly principal(prenominal) to know the difference and this is a major feature of e-commerce development in China. Meanwhile, knowing the difference between Chinese e-commerce and American e-commerce is also a key to generalise the development of Chinese e-commerce.In 1997 and 1998, the main automobile trunk of Chinese e -commerce is the IT vendors and the media. The IT vendors and media implemented the elementary education concerning e-commerce. As a result, this could stir up and guide slews understanding, interests and needs towards e-commerce. later on this stage, in 1999 and 2000, the e-commerce service merchants that feature the websites became the root application under the involvement of venture capital. With the deepening application and development of e-commerce, the website e-commerce began to fall into the bottom. At the same time, enterprises, especially immense-scale traditional enterprises, started to enter e-commerce eye socket. Since 2001, Chinese e-commerce entered the third stages. Since then, the enterprises e-commerce becomes a fresh subject in China.In recent years, Chinese e-commerce has the rapid development. In 2007, the total volume of national e-commerce transactions achieved RMB 2.17 trillion yuan, increasing 90% than the past year. The online shipping in China also has a rapid development. By the end of June 2008, online shop workrs reached 63.29 million subscribers and increased by 36.4% inwardly half-dozen months. Till celestial latitude 2008, the entire ingestionrs of e-commerce websites have been covered from 90,000,000 to 98,000,000.(Gregory, 2008)2.1.3 Developed Stages of E-commerce in ChinaGenerally speaking, e-commerce in China can be divided into six stages. These six stages are starting stage, adjusting stage, resuscitating stage, rapid ontogenesis stage, upgrade stage and adulthood stage.Starting StageThis stage lasted from 1997 to 1999. The first scale of e-commerce websites were strengthened within these three years in China. At that time, the concept of new Internet encouraged the first scale of business owners. These business owners thought the traditional business would reply on the Internet to communicate. (Angelov, 2001) Therefore, they believed that the e-commerce would have a large-mouthed potential in the future. Fr om 1997 to 1999, some famous e-commerce websites emerged. Of the current e-commerce websites, 5.2% were established in 1990s.Adjusting StageThe adjusting stage lasted from 2000 to 2002. Under the background of Internet bubble, the development of e-commerce suffered large shock. Under this circumstance, the confidence of business owners experienced serious challenge. inside these three years, few business owners established new e-commerce websites.Resuscitating StageThe resuscitating stage lasted from 2003 to 2005. Since 2003, the e-commerce in China has resuscitated. However, parts of e-commerce websites were more careful to treat the profit model and reduce the operation cost. According to the investigation by B2B researching center, 30.1% of e-commerce websites were built from 2003 to 2005. During this period, the enterprise members who adopt the e-commerce enhanced increasingly.Rapid Developing StageThe rapid developing stage lasted from 2006 to 2007. The improvement of Internet environment and popularization of e-commerce in China brought large opportunities to the e-commerce. In this stage, the members of various e-commerce platforms increased sharply. Most of B2B e-commerce websites realized the profits. The vision of IPO, good competition in the industry and investment emotion stimulates the e-commerce industry in China to enter in rapid development stage. (Kenneth, 2003) Within two years, the numbers of e-commerce websites increased largely. It is investigated that the e-commerce websites built in 2007 exceeded 30.3% of current websites. boost StageThe upgrade stage lasted from 2008 to 2009. Between 2008 and 2009, global financial crisis influenced many an(prenominal) industries. Under the guidance of expanding domestic demand and reducing the costs, B2B gained more development. However, C2C field made online users own more choice spaces. It is researched by B2B researching center that the e-commerce websites in this stage took up the 22.3% of curren t total quantities. adulthood StageMaturity stage started since 2009. After 2009, e-commerce in China will fancy new development. With the economic development and technology development, e-commerce will deeply change the consumer manner in future.2.2 Online Shopping2.2.1 inception of Online ShoppingOnline obtainis the process that the consumers secure the products by the Internet without any intermediary. In this line, the consumers do non go to the shop centers and spend much time. An online shop, e-shop, e- terminus, internet shop, web-shop, webstore, online store, or practical(prenominal) store evokes the physical analogy of buyingproductsorservicesat abricks-and-mortarretaileror in a obtain mall. (Bigne, 2005) This process is cognize as Business-to-Consumer (B2C) online shopping. Business-to-Business (B2B) online shopping is formed when a business leveragings from another business. both(prenominal) B2C online shopping and B2B online shopping are the main forms of e-c ommerce.HistoryIn 1990, Tim Berners-Lee created the first World Wide Web server and browser. (Jarvenpaa, 2007) In 1991, the commercial use has been created and was applied to the business. With the technological development, more improvement in Internet was select in the business. For example, online banking was opened and brought the thingamabob to the consumers. Pizza Hut opened an online pizza shop. In 1994, Netscape fetched in a secure system to maintain the online shopping, which is called SSL encoding of data transferred online. In 1995, e-Bay emerged in the online shopping. During the same year, Amazon enlarged the online shopping. Recently, buy in has also become one of the worlds largest and reliable online shopping stores. (Davis, 2001) As a result, online shopping is in a continuous developing process.Web-shopThe emergence of web-shop appears with the development of online shopping. The web-shop refers to an online retailer. Web development, hosting and other activiti es related with web are known as web-shops. (Falk, 2005) The growth of online shopping is mostly because transportation costs went up and telecom costs went down. (Chaudhury, 2001) Therefore, as time goes past, the Internet is a commonplace. Online shopping provides consumers with large ranges of selection and thus consumers could distinguish the goods and services with an optimal price. However, online shopping has the limitations that consumers can not see the developed goods what they want to buy. Sometimes there are some differences between the pictures shown on the Internet and the goods consumers finally receive.CustomersOnline shopping is very popular in recent years. Online shopping usually caters to the middle and stop number class. (Bucklin, 2002) The premise of online shopping is that one must be access to a computer, a bank account and a debit card. Online shopping can not leave with the advanced technology. According to research which focused on the demographic char acteristics of the in-home shopper, in general, the higher the level of education, income, and occupation of the head of the household, the more favorable the perception of non-store shopping. (Moe, 2003)Initially, the main target audience of online shopping was one-year-old men with a high level of income and education. In the process of affable development, women became more independent in the value. Today, the online shopping was used by both men and women in the middle class.2.2.2Advantages and Disadvantages of Online ShoppingNowadays as the rapid change of technology, e-commerce has developed fast. Un desire with the bricks and mortar retailing, online shopping has save practical(prenominal) stores. Due to the development of e-commerce, online shopping has become a new business and gone to matureness. It is necessary for the food marketers to know the advantages and disadvantages of online shopping respectively.AdvantagesNo Space and clipping LimitTraditional retailing bu siness is based on meliorate locations and time. It is few that the stores could do business in the whole 24 hours. However, online shopping business is no time limit, operating 24 hours a day. Its time is decided by the online users who are consumers. Therefore, online shopping business has the advantage of the new space-time, which could be an even greater extent on the wider internet to meet the needs of users and consumers. In addition, online sales can be carried out in the world with the internet, and there are no geographical barriers. In the instance of the global market, without having to spend exorbitant costs of international marketing conditions, it whitethorn create an international brand, launching the least costs or services to the world. (Andy, 2004)Services of All-round Display of ProductFor the common daily use product, there are no advantages for e-commerce. just now for other durable goods or complex and industrial goods, online shopping will be able to use on -line multi-media performance to display products appearance, performance and quality. Meanwhile, online shopping could determine the run for of internal structure in order to help consumers fully understand the goods or services, then buying it.Specific Information and Convenient comparingInternet provides comprehensive, specific, effective and strong information and reliable low-cost. It is easy to use search technology and fast transmission of the process to make consumers puzzle access to information simply.4) Close Relationship with Consumers and a Better arrangement of ConsumersAs the Internets interactional communication, there is no outside interference about expressing their feelings. It makes consumers to express more evaluation about product or service. This mannequin of the evaluation, on the one hand, let on-line retailers can be interrupt understanding of the internal needs of internet consumers on the other hand, consumers interactive communication with online retailers could promote their close relationship.Cheaper ProductsAs the online shopping retailers are virtual intermediary agencies, they do not need stores, decorating, and the display of goods on the shelves, attendants and so on. It leads the costs of their products to be cheaper. Therefore, their price is lower that the products price in the traditional stores. It is also an advantage that can attract more consumers.Disadvantages1) A overleap of Feeling and Human CommunicationIn traditional shopping, consumers judge and choose products through looking, hearing, smelling, touching and other sensor. But in the process of online shopping, it only offers two waysto look or hear. For a number of raft, the feeling of shopping is a social practice and a kind of social butt on with the opportunity to enjoy a kind (Christopher, 2005). Online shopping has lost the free rein of wandering the streets, meanwhile, the fun of shopping process will greatly discounted.2Lack of Psychological SatisfactionIn traditional shopping, as the relationship between population, people like to display their personality and life situation in costume and make-up to enjoy and appreciate other peoples envy. In the way of online shopping, no one know the consumers appearance, dress, wealth, so that shoppings psychological rapture can not be attained.3) The Limited Scope of ApplicationAlthough in theory, any product can be on-line transactions, in actual operation, there is still not suitable for many products sales. This involves products attributes and characteristics. Some products are easy to be damaged in the process of transportation. For these products, consumers would not purchase online.2.2.3 Online Shopping Development in ChinaWith the application of Internet, online shopping little by little becomes one of online activities for Chinese. The online shopping development in China can be divided into four stages, including flush stage, growth stage, rapid developing stage and m aturity stage.Flush StageBefore 1999, the prophets of Chinese Internet began to establish the B2C websites, which contributed to promote the online shopping. However, this action was questioned by the economic field at that time. The questions were sourced from three aspects. Firstly, economic filed thought there were no enough consumers to select the online shopping. It was investigated that the Internet users only reached 8.9 million till 2000 in China and most of people have not formed the habit of online shopping. Therefore, many economists thought the online shopping would not have large market in China. Secondly, they believed that online shopping could not solve the logistics problem at that time. The online shopping requires national logistics distribution system. But the express industry in China before 1999 was just in a starting stage. Thirdly, online shopping could not solve the Internet payment problems. Before 1999, Chinese were used to cash transactions and did not fo rm the habit of bank card. As a result, online shopping was really heavy to develop in China before 1999.Growth StageThe growth stage lasted from 2003 to 2005. In 2003, SARS shocked China seriously. However, SARS explored a new era of online shopping in China. Attacked by SARS, most people trapped in the house. If they wanted to go out to buy things, they unavoidable to rely on the network. Even people with a strong find against online shopping began to try.Then more and more people realized the convenience of online ordering, home delivery. (Frieden, 2006) At the same time, more and more people would like to accept online shopping.After SARS in 2003, consumers in China increasingly participated in online shopping.Online shopping business has gradually established the market in China and entered into the growth phase.Rapid Developing StageThis stage lasted from 2006 to 2007. issue through the growth stage, online shopping in China entered into the rapid developing phase. Many pe ople experienced the online shopping and the entire e-commerce environment was broke. After 1999, some problems related to the online shipping were improved continuously, including the logistics distribution, payment and so on. In 2006, logistics distribution system was already mature and became a critical role in the Chinese online shopping. The online payment also made the large advancement. The third party payment tool could ensure the payment safety of consumers. During this time, the headmaster stumbling block to online shopping did not exist. (Miller, 2002) According to the official statistics, in 2006, the market size of online shopping in China reached over RMB 20 billion. 2007 is the year when online shopping developed the most rapid. In 2007, the market size of B2C online shopping achieved RMB 4.3billion. Meanwhile, the market size of B2B online shopping reached RMB 51.8 billion. Above statistics meant the online shopping in China has been very optimistic from 2006 to 200 7.Maturity StageSince 2008, the online shopping entered into a maturity stage. With the promotion of Olympic Games, the online market kept 95% of increasing rate. From 2008 to now, the online shopping is in a stable increasing process. In the future phoebe bird years, the market size of online shopping will expand stable.2.3 Consumer Behavior2.3.1 installation2.3.2 Characteristics of Consumer Behavior2.3.3 Factors that Impact on Consumer Behavior2.4 Cultural Factor2.4.1 Introduction2.4.2 How Cultural Factors impact on Consumer Behavior

Computer Hardware And Software

calculating machine selective entropy processor figurer hardwargon And softw ar package package programIn this topic Management learning System is most the information clays knowledge is essential for creating competitive firms, managing ground(prenominal) corporations, adding descent value, and providing procurable products and services on the way to customers.What is an information outline? The information system is defined technically as a set of interrelated frame-up that collect, process, store and distribute information to support close making and function in an organization. In other also determination supporting decision making, coordination, and manage, information systems may also encourage director and workers analyze problems, throw complex subjects and create new-made products. So information system see about signifi so-and-sot people, place, and things within the organization or in the surroundings surrounding it.Selecting the world(a) system i s from other countries, such as joined States, Europe and Asia. thence topical anesthetic is just at country to state or city to city. While want to work outstation or charge familiarity, it moldinessiness know local environments, with diffe pick out, close of countries, and local knowledge, judgment of conviction deliver service on a worldwide, and magazine intense platform. In this interrogative mood ask that become a mangers hot get up a company in many countries. By the way, management, organization, and engine room argon iodine point to show worldwide industriousness how to work and manage it. hesitation 1Why is selecting computer ironw ar and packet package for the organization an great management decision? What management, organization and applied science come in should be considered when selecting computer computer hardware?Answer of Question 1Nowadays, computer is a thingumabob that accepts information and manipulates on a program or sequence of ope rational book of instructions on how the data to be processed. The computers also include the means for storing data. computing devices covariant have two single outs are software product product and hardware.Computer hardware is physical foundation for the firms information engineering infrastructure. Information technology infrastructures include software, data and networks. Computer hardware requires their storage or operation. Then, computer software is detailed instructions that control the operation of a computer system. However, hardware is without software to perform the tasks to associate with computers.Subsequently, in this question ask that why is selecting computer hardware and software for the organization an consequential management decision? Computer hardware is accordingly representing an important organizational benefit that must be properly managed. Managers strike to balance the damage of acquire hardware capital with the need to provide a reactive and reliable platform for delivering information system applications programmes. The most important issues in managing hardware assets are understanding the new technology requirements for electronic transaction and the digital firm, it also determining the replete(p) court of consumeership of technology assets, and identifying technology tr determinations impacting the organizations information technology infrastructure.While the software is represents a major organizational software asset that should be carefully managed. System software coordinates the different parts of the computer system and mediates between application software and computer hardware. As a result, the application software is utilisationd by application programmers and some end determinationrs to develop particular proposition employment application. Then, operating system is system software that to manages and controls the activities of the computer. This system acts as chief autobus of the information sy stem, allocation, assigning, and scheduling system resources and monitoring the use of the computer. Computer system resources allow to be used more efficiently such as multiprogramming, multi bear upon, virtual storage and time sharing are operating system capabilities. In PC operating systems have to demonstrable complicated capability like support for multiple users on networks. PC operating system is leading area include windowpane XP, Window 98 and Window Me, Window CE, Window 2000, OS/2, Unix, Linux, Mas OS and DOS. Software also have general trend, can toward user-friendly, high level languages that some(prenominal) increase professional programmer productivity and make it easily for end users to work information systems. Principal programming languages used in business include C, C++ and Visual Basic and each is designed to let off proper(postnominal) types of problems. Software assortment should be based on touchstone such as efficiency, compatibility with organizatio ns technology platform, trafficker support, and whether the software tool is appropriate for the problems and tasks of the organization.Another view computer hardware and software technology can enhance or organizational performance. Two of them are major organizational assets that must be carefully managed. By the electronic commerce and electronic business have put new strategical importance on technologies that can store vast quantities if operation data and make them immediately available online. So manager and information systems specialists need to pay individual attention to hardware capacity planning and scalability to go steady that the firm has enough computer science mogul for its current and upcoming needs. Then they also need to balance the costs and benefits of owning and maintaining their own hardware and software versus renting these assets from external service suppliers. In the online storage service provider (SSPs) rent out storage space to subscribers oer t he Web, to selling the computer storage as a pay-per-use utility. Type of application service providers (ASPs) is rent out to the software applications and computer services from private network or remote computer centers to subscribers over the Internet. The companies will pay technology service provides only for the amount of computing power and services by a utility computing model. Cost is one of the point for calculating the total cost of ownership (TCO) of the organizations technology assets can help to provide managers with the information they want to manage these assets and decide whether to rent or own these assets. Finally, the total cost of technology resources includes not only the master key cost of computer hardware and software but they also same(p) costs to upgrades, maintenance, technical support, and training.ManagementComputer hardware technology is to threatening impact on business performance. Thus, it represents an important organizational asset that must be properly managed. Then, the alternative computer hardware topologies are available to processing and storing data epoch they are use this technology for their business. Computer system have many modern and can be reason into six major components such as a central processing unit (CPU), primary storage, input devices, output devices, secondary storage, and communications devices (in bit 1).Figure 1hardware components of computer systemCPU is the part of computer where the manipulation of symbol, letter occurs and numbers. CPU has two types of components such as an arithmetic-logical system unit and a control unit. CPU is a closely fix primary memory, or primary storage, which are stores data and program instructions temporarily before or after processing. However, more than a hardly a(prenominal) difference kinds of semiconductor memory chips is RAM ( random access memory) is use for short term storage of data and program instruction, then fixed storage (read only memory) ete rnally stores important program instructions. Computer processing power depends in part of speed in microprocessors, which is computers logic and control on a single chip. The input devices have include keyboards, computer mice, magnetic link and optical character recognition devices speech sound input devices and radio frequency identification devices. Maintenance of computer hardware is one of a series of cost components that mangers must consider when selecting and managing hardware technology assets. Total cost of ownership (TCO) is designates the total cost of owning technology resources including cost of hardware, maintenance, and training. Anywhere, to improve firm of management and information systems specialists, so they must pay more attention to hardware capacity planning and scalability. For this system of capacity planning, is the process of predicting when the computer hardware system become saturated. For issue of capacity planning, most of the users that using the s ystem can accommodate at one time. Second issue is the impact of existing and the future software application. Then, is a performance measure like minimum to response time for the processing business transaction. Currently, capacity planning is ensures for the firm has enough computing power and upcoming needs. Salability is refers for the ability of a computer, product, or system to widen to provide a large number of users without breaking down. government activityComputer hardware technology can either improve or holdup organizational performance. Computer hardware selection should consider how well the technology meshes with the organizations culture and structure with its information processing requirements. engine roomInformation technology today is not incomplete to computers but must be viewed as an array of digital devices networked together. Thus, type of computer and establishment of processing that should be used by business in the nature organization. Computers type as well as mainframes, PCs, midrange computers, workstation, or supercomputer. While, computers also can be networked together to distribute processing among different machines. Network computer can help organization to maintain the central control over computing, linking PCs, workstations, peer-to-peer, or other computers through the profit or sharing data by private network, and disk space. Different ways of configuring hardware components in management side.Question 2If you were a manager in a company that employs in many countries, what criteria would you use to determine whether a new system should be developed as a world(prenominal) application or local application? Why?Answer of Question 2In this question is asking that if I am a manager will chooses global application or local application to operating a new system in many countries of the company. What is global application mean? globose application is for a world order is brush away many issue corporations, national in dustries, and national economies control by domestic politician. Most of the countries like United States, Europe and Asia, many of their local firms will be replacing by fast-moving networked corporations that rise above national boundaries. Global application is the overall market forces, or business drivers, that are pushing to industry toward the global competition.So, want to be a obedient manager must known how to management, organizational and technology using a new system to operate the company in many countries. To develop a global application in new system, a manager would need to learn the cultures, face political and sound uncertainties, global environmental and societal expectations, develop a global position and re swot up business strategies. The global market may run up against governmental or cultural restrictions.One of the criteria to be considered to develop the global application is global cultural which include the forms of religious, nationalistic, ethnic, r egionalism, and geopolitical position. The differences of culture influence the concept of a shared global culture and reject the penetration of domestic markets by foreign goods and services. The expansion of international communication has created a world culture with stable expectations or norms. However for some of the middle and low level, software systems will equip with their local languages. Every country have their own terms of business trade, therefore political stability and a suppuration global knowledge base that is widely and essential for the world culture during develop of global application. These common factors are also creating the conditions for global markets, global production, coordination, distribution, and global economies of scale.In addition, different cultures produce different political and legal issued. Many countries are using different laws to lead the movement of information, information privacy of their citizens, origins of software and hardware in systems, and radio and satellite telecommunications. For spokesperson in Germany, a vendor cannot accept payment via credit panel until two weeks after an order has been sent. While in Malaysia, a vendor is accept payment via credit card before order goods deliver.Moreover, the criteria of social expectation are another point will need to be concentrate. Different of working hours are vary across countries. So the specific like the reliability that phone network not reliable.For the developing global business have cardinal basic international strategies such as domestic exporter, multinational, franchiser, and transnational. The domestic exporter strategy is characterized by heavy centralization of merged activities in the home country of origin. For second strategy is multinational, it is concentrates financial management and control out of a central home base while decentralizing production and marketing operations to units in other countries. ternary strategy of franchise r is an interesting mix of old and new. Last strategy is the transnational, this for managed the activities from a global perspective without reference to national borders, optimizing sources of supply and demand wheresoever they become visible. In the information technology, the global telecommunications must improve because they are giving for international firms more flexibility to shape their global strategies. Thus, the protectionism is dish out local markets better encourage companies to disperse production facilities.To develop a global company in many counties, how a firm bone and how to control the information support structure by manger? By the way, the entire branch in other counties needs to follow these principles. there are including organize, develop, and establish. For organize value adding activities along lines of comparative advantage. For example, marketing or sales functions should be located where they can best to present, for least cost and maximum impact. Other organizes like production, finance, human resources and information system. Second is develop, it to operate system units at each level of corporate activities regional, national, and international.Local company and global company, theirs develop not same to manage. For local company, there should legions country system units of some magnitude. Then the global company is using regional systems units to handle telecommunications and system victimization across national boundaries that sate place within major geographic regions. Last is establish, at world center of operations is a single office responsible for nurture of international system.ManagementManagers are responsible for devising an appropriate organizational and technological framework for international business. Global business strategies have four basic for global firms organizational structure. Transnational firms should develop networked system configurations and stomach considerable decentralization of vict imisation. Second strategies are franchisers, nearly to duplicate systems across many countries and use centralized financial controls. Multinationals is third strategy, it typically bank on decentralized independence among foreign units with some movement toward information of networks. Lastly is domestic strategy is exporters typically are centralized in domestic headquarters with some decentralized operations permitted. To develop a global firm or company and information systems support structure, be a firm or company needs to known these principles. To identifying join business process is to perform a business process analysis. on that point have three type are organize develop and establish. Hence, organize is the value adding activities along lines of comparative advantage. After that, develop and operate systems units at each level of corporate activity regional, national, and international and establish is at world headquarters a single office responsible for development of international system, it is a global chief information officer (CIO) position. Managers must know how to handle the most vexing problem facing managers developing the global information systems architectures. Applications developed just about the global by different divisions, different people, and for different kinds of computing hardware. If the problem are exaggerated in an international environment, then just to imagine the challenge of integrate system based on Window, Unix, Linux and many other hardware in many different operating units in many different countries.OrganizationGlobal information systems pose challenges because of culture, political, and language diversity magnifies in organizational culture and business processes and encourages proliferation of disparate local information systems that are demanding to integrate. Usually, international systems have evolved without a conscious plan. The remedy is in the military commission of a small subset of core busin ess process and focus on building systems to support these processes. Usually, for managers must have to get somebody on board widely dispersed foreign units to participate in the development and operation of these systems, being careful to maintain overall control.TechnologyGlobal systems also must using hardware, software, and networking pose special technical challenges in an international setting. Mean that want finding some way to standardize a global computing platform when using have transmutation form operating unit to operating unit and from country to country. The habitual acceptance of the net around the global has greatly reduced networking problems. While, the internet does not guarantee that information will flow seamlessly throughout the global organization. Because all business units not use the same applications, and the quality of internet service can be highly variable. Other way, the hardware and telecommunications issues are systems integration and connectivi ty. Integration is to go either with a proprietary architecture or with open systems technology. Then the global networks are particularly knockout to build and operate. However, firms or company can build their own global networks or also can create global networks based on internet.